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+# sql/compiler.py
+# Copyright (C) 2005-2024 the SQLAlchemy authors and contributors
+# <see AUTHORS file>
+#
+# This module is part of SQLAlchemy and is released under
+# the MIT License: https://www.opensource.org/licenses/mit-license.php
+# mypy: allow-untyped-defs, allow-untyped-calls
+
+"""Base SQL and DDL compiler implementations.
+
+Classes provided include:
+
+:class:`.compiler.SQLCompiler` - renders SQL
+strings
+
+:class:`.compiler.DDLCompiler` - renders DDL
+(data definition language) strings
+
+:class:`.compiler.GenericTypeCompiler` - renders
+type specification strings.
+
+To generate user-defined SQL strings, see
+:doc:`/ext/compiler`.
+
+"""
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import collections
+import collections.abc as collections_abc
+import contextlib
+from enum import IntEnum
+import functools
+import itertools
+import operator
+import re
+from time import perf_counter
+import typing
+from typing import Any
+from typing import Callable
+from typing import cast
+from typing import ClassVar
+from typing import Dict
+from typing import FrozenSet
+from typing import Iterable
+from typing import Iterator
+from typing import List
+from typing import Mapping
+from typing import MutableMapping
+from typing import NamedTuple
+from typing import NoReturn
+from typing import Optional
+from typing import Pattern
+from typing import Sequence
+from typing import Set
+from typing import Tuple
+from typing import Type
+from typing import TYPE_CHECKING
+from typing import Union
+
+from . import base
+from . import coercions
+from . import crud
+from . import elements
+from . import functions
+from . import operators
+from . import roles
+from . import schema
+from . import selectable
+from . import sqltypes
+from . import util as sql_util
+from ._typing import is_column_element
+from ._typing import is_dml
+from .base import _de_clone
+from .base import _from_objects
+from .base import _NONE_NAME
+from .base import _SentinelDefaultCharacterization
+from .base import Executable
+from .base import NO_ARG
+from .elements import ClauseElement
+from .elements import quoted_name
+from .schema import Column
+from .sqltypes import TupleType
+from .type_api import TypeEngine
+from .visitors import prefix_anon_map
+from .visitors import Visitable
+from .. import exc
+from .. import util
+from ..util import FastIntFlag
+from ..util.typing import Literal
+from ..util.typing import Protocol
+from ..util.typing import TypedDict
+
+if typing.TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from .annotation import _AnnotationDict
+    from .base import _AmbiguousTableNameMap
+    from .base import CompileState
+    from .cache_key import CacheKey
+    from .ddl import ExecutableDDLElement
+    from .dml import Insert
+    from .dml import UpdateBase
+    from .dml import ValuesBase
+    from .elements import _truncated_label
+    from .elements import BindParameter
+    from .elements import ColumnClause
+    from .elements import ColumnElement
+    from .elements import Label
+    from .functions import Function
+    from .schema import Table
+    from .selectable import AliasedReturnsRows
+    from .selectable import CompoundSelectState
+    from .selectable import CTE
+    from .selectable import FromClause
+    from .selectable import NamedFromClause
+    from .selectable import ReturnsRows
+    from .selectable import Select
+    from .selectable import SelectState
+    from .type_api import _BindProcessorType
+    from ..engine.cursor import CursorResultMetaData
+    from ..engine.interfaces import _CoreSingleExecuteParams
+    from ..engine.interfaces import _DBAPIAnyExecuteParams
+    from ..engine.interfaces import _DBAPIMultiExecuteParams
+    from ..engine.interfaces import _DBAPISingleExecuteParams
+    from ..engine.interfaces import _ExecuteOptions
+    from ..engine.interfaces import _GenericSetInputSizesType
+    from ..engine.interfaces import _MutableCoreSingleExecuteParams
+    from ..engine.interfaces import Dialect
+    from ..engine.interfaces import SchemaTranslateMapType
+
+_FromHintsType = Dict["FromClause", str]
+
+RESERVED_WORDS = {
+    "all",
+    "analyse",
+    "analyze",
+    "and",
+    "any",
+    "array",
+    "as",
+    "asc",
+    "asymmetric",
+    "authorization",
+    "between",
+    "binary",
+    "both",
+    "case",
+    "cast",
+    "check",
+    "collate",
+    "column",
+    "constraint",
+    "create",
+    "cross",
+    "current_date",
+    "current_role",
+    "current_time",
+    "current_timestamp",
+    "current_user",
+    "default",
+    "deferrable",
+    "desc",
+    "distinct",
+    "do",
+    "else",
+    "end",
+    "except",
+    "false",
+    "for",
+    "foreign",
+    "freeze",
+    "from",
+    "full",
+    "grant",
+    "group",
+    "having",
+    "ilike",
+    "in",
+    "initially",
+    "inner",
+    "intersect",
+    "into",
+    "is",
+    "isnull",
+    "join",
+    "leading",
+    "left",
+    "like",
+    "limit",
+    "localtime",
+    "localtimestamp",
+    "natural",
+    "new",
+    "not",
+    "notnull",
+    "null",
+    "off",
+    "offset",
+    "old",
+    "on",
+    "only",
+    "or",
+    "order",
+    "outer",
+    "overlaps",
+    "placing",
+    "primary",
+    "references",
+    "right",
+    "select",
+    "session_user",
+    "set",
+    "similar",
+    "some",
+    "symmetric",
+    "table",
+    "then",
+    "to",
+    "trailing",
+    "true",
+    "union",
+    "unique",
+    "user",
+    "using",
+    "verbose",
+    "when",
+    "where",
+}
+
+LEGAL_CHARACTERS = re.compile(r"^[A-Z0-9_$]+$", re.I)
+LEGAL_CHARACTERS_PLUS_SPACE = re.compile(r"^[A-Z0-9_ $]+$", re.I)
+ILLEGAL_INITIAL_CHARACTERS = {str(x) for x in range(0, 10)}.union(["$"])
+
+FK_ON_DELETE = re.compile(
+    r"^(?:RESTRICT|CASCADE|SET NULL|NO ACTION|SET DEFAULT)$", re.I
+)
+FK_ON_UPDATE = re.compile(
+    r"^(?:RESTRICT|CASCADE|SET NULL|NO ACTION|SET DEFAULT)$", re.I
+)
+FK_INITIALLY = re.compile(r"^(?:DEFERRED|IMMEDIATE)$", re.I)
+BIND_PARAMS = re.compile(r"(?<![:\w\$\x5c]):([\w\$]+)(?![:\w\$])", re.UNICODE)
+BIND_PARAMS_ESC = re.compile(r"\x5c(:[\w\$]*)(?![:\w\$])", re.UNICODE)
+
+_pyformat_template = "%%(%(name)s)s"
+BIND_TEMPLATES = {
+    "pyformat": _pyformat_template,
+    "qmark": "?",
+    "format": "%%s",
+    "numeric": ":[_POSITION]",
+    "numeric_dollar": "$[_POSITION]",
+    "named": ":%(name)s",
+}
+
+
+OPERATORS = {
+    # binary
+    operators.and_: " AND ",
+    operators.or_: " OR ",
+    operators.add: " + ",
+    operators.mul: " * ",
+    operators.sub: " - ",
+    operators.mod: " % ",
+    operators.neg: "-",
+    operators.lt: " < ",
+    operators.le: " <= ",
+    operators.ne: " != ",
+    operators.gt: " > ",
+    operators.ge: " >= ",
+    operators.eq: " = ",
+    operators.is_distinct_from: " IS DISTINCT FROM ",
+    operators.is_not_distinct_from: " IS NOT DISTINCT FROM ",
+    operators.concat_op: " || ",
+    operators.match_op: " MATCH ",
+    operators.not_match_op: " NOT MATCH ",
+    operators.in_op: " IN ",
+    operators.not_in_op: " NOT IN ",
+    operators.comma_op: ", ",
+    operators.from_: " FROM ",
+    operators.as_: " AS ",
+    operators.is_: " IS ",
+    operators.is_not: " IS NOT ",
+    operators.collate: " COLLATE ",
+    # unary
+    operators.exists: "EXISTS ",
+    operators.distinct_op: "DISTINCT ",
+    operators.inv: "NOT ",
+    operators.any_op: "ANY ",
+    operators.all_op: "ALL ",
+    # modifiers
+    operators.desc_op: " DESC",
+    operators.asc_op: " ASC",
+    operators.nulls_first_op: " NULLS FIRST",
+    operators.nulls_last_op: " NULLS LAST",
+    # bitwise
+    operators.bitwise_xor_op: " ^ ",
+    operators.bitwise_or_op: " | ",
+    operators.bitwise_and_op: " & ",
+    operators.bitwise_not_op: "~",
+    operators.bitwise_lshift_op: " << ",
+    operators.bitwise_rshift_op: " >> ",
+}
+
+FUNCTIONS: Dict[Type[Function[Any]], str] = {
+    functions.coalesce: "coalesce",
+    functions.current_date: "CURRENT_DATE",
+    functions.current_time: "CURRENT_TIME",
+    functions.current_timestamp: "CURRENT_TIMESTAMP",
+    functions.current_user: "CURRENT_USER",
+    functions.localtime: "LOCALTIME",
+    functions.localtimestamp: "LOCALTIMESTAMP",
+    functions.random: "random",
+    functions.sysdate: "sysdate",
+    functions.session_user: "SESSION_USER",
+    functions.user: "USER",
+    functions.cube: "CUBE",
+    functions.rollup: "ROLLUP",
+    functions.grouping_sets: "GROUPING SETS",
+}
+
+
+EXTRACT_MAP = {
+    "month": "month",
+    "day": "day",
+    "year": "year",
+    "second": "second",
+    "hour": "hour",
+    "doy": "doy",
+    "minute": "minute",
+    "quarter": "quarter",
+    "dow": "dow",
+    "week": "week",
+    "epoch": "epoch",
+    "milliseconds": "milliseconds",
+    "microseconds": "microseconds",
+    "timezone_hour": "timezone_hour",
+    "timezone_minute": "timezone_minute",
+}
+
+COMPOUND_KEYWORDS = {
+    selectable._CompoundSelectKeyword.UNION: "UNION",
+    selectable._CompoundSelectKeyword.UNION_ALL: "UNION ALL",
+    selectable._CompoundSelectKeyword.EXCEPT: "EXCEPT",
+    selectable._CompoundSelectKeyword.EXCEPT_ALL: "EXCEPT ALL",
+    selectable._CompoundSelectKeyword.INTERSECT: "INTERSECT",
+    selectable._CompoundSelectKeyword.INTERSECT_ALL: "INTERSECT ALL",
+}
+
+
+class ResultColumnsEntry(NamedTuple):
+    """Tracks a column expression that is expected to be represented
+    in the result rows for this statement.
+
+    This normally refers to the columns clause of a SELECT statement
+    but may also refer to a RETURNING clause, as well as for dialect-specific
+    emulations.
+
+    """
+
+    keyname: str
+    """string name that's expected in cursor.description"""
+
+    name: str
+    """column name, may be labeled"""
+
+    objects: Tuple[Any, ...]
+    """sequence of objects that should be able to locate this column
+    in a RowMapping.  This is typically string names and aliases
+    as well as Column objects.
+
+    """
+
+    type: TypeEngine[Any]
+    """Datatype to be associated with this column.   This is where
+    the "result processing" logic directly links the compiled statement
+    to the rows that come back from the cursor.
+
+    """
+
+
+class _ResultMapAppender(Protocol):
+    def __call__(
+        self,
+        keyname: str,
+        name: str,
+        objects: Sequence[Any],
+        type_: TypeEngine[Any],
+    ) -> None: ...
+
+
+# integer indexes into ResultColumnsEntry used by cursor.py.
+# some profiling showed integer access faster than named tuple
+RM_RENDERED_NAME: Literal[0] = 0
+RM_NAME: Literal[1] = 1
+RM_OBJECTS: Literal[2] = 2
+RM_TYPE: Literal[3] = 3
+
+
+class _BaseCompilerStackEntry(TypedDict):
+    asfrom_froms: Set[FromClause]
+    correlate_froms: Set[FromClause]
+    selectable: ReturnsRows
+
+
+class _CompilerStackEntry(_BaseCompilerStackEntry, total=False):
+    compile_state: CompileState
+    need_result_map_for_nested: bool
+    need_result_map_for_compound: bool
+    select_0: ReturnsRows
+    insert_from_select: Select[Any]
+
+
+class ExpandedState(NamedTuple):
+    """represents state to use when producing "expanded" and
+    "post compile" bound parameters for a statement.
+
+    "expanded" parameters are parameters that are generated at
+    statement execution time to suit a number of parameters passed, the most
+    prominent example being the individual elements inside of an IN expression.
+
+    "post compile" parameters are parameters where the SQL literal value
+    will be rendered into the SQL statement at execution time, rather than
+    being passed as separate parameters to the driver.
+
+    To create an :class:`.ExpandedState` instance, use the
+    :meth:`.SQLCompiler.construct_expanded_state` method on any
+    :class:`.SQLCompiler` instance.
+
+    """
+
+    statement: str
+    """String SQL statement with parameters fully expanded"""
+
+    parameters: _CoreSingleExecuteParams
+    """Parameter dictionary with parameters fully expanded.
+
+    For a statement that uses named parameters, this dictionary will map
+    exactly to the names in the statement.  For a statement that uses
+    positional parameters, the :attr:`.ExpandedState.positional_parameters`
+    will yield a tuple with the positional parameter set.
+
+    """
+
+    processors: Mapping[str, _BindProcessorType[Any]]
+    """mapping of bound value processors"""
+
+    positiontup: Optional[Sequence[str]]
+    """Sequence of string names indicating the order of positional
+    parameters"""
+
+    parameter_expansion: Mapping[str, List[str]]
+    """Mapping representing the intermediary link from original parameter
+    name to list of "expanded" parameter names, for those parameters that
+    were expanded."""
+
+    @property
+    def positional_parameters(self) -> Tuple[Any, ...]:
+        """Tuple of positional parameters, for statements that were compiled
+        using a positional paramstyle.
+
+        """
+        if self.positiontup is None:
+            raise exc.InvalidRequestError(
+                "statement does not use a positional paramstyle"
+            )
+        return tuple(self.parameters[key] for key in self.positiontup)
+
+    @property
+    def additional_parameters(self) -> _CoreSingleExecuteParams:
+        """synonym for :attr:`.ExpandedState.parameters`."""
+        return self.parameters
+
+
+class _InsertManyValues(NamedTuple):
+    """represents state to use for executing an "insertmanyvalues" statement.
+
+    The primary consumers of this object are the
+    :meth:`.SQLCompiler._deliver_insertmanyvalues_batches` and
+    :meth:`.DefaultDialect._deliver_insertmanyvalues_batches` methods.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 2.0
+
+    """
+
+    is_default_expr: bool
+    """if True, the statement is of the form
+    ``INSERT INTO TABLE DEFAULT VALUES``, and can't be rewritten as a "batch"
+
+    """
+
+    single_values_expr: str
+    """The rendered "values" clause of the INSERT statement.
+
+    This is typically the parenthesized section e.g. "(?, ?, ?)" or similar.
+    The insertmanyvalues logic uses this string as a search and replace
+    target.
+
+    """
+
+    insert_crud_params: List[crud._CrudParamElementStr]
+    """List of Column / bind names etc. used while rewriting the statement"""
+
+    num_positional_params_counted: int
+    """the number of bound parameters in a single-row statement.
+
+    This count may be larger or smaller than the actual number of columns
+    targeted in the INSERT, as it accommodates for SQL expressions
+    in the values list that may have zero or more parameters embedded
+    within them.
+
+    This count is part of what's used to organize rewritten parameter lists
+    when batching.
+
+    """
+
+    sort_by_parameter_order: bool = False
+    """if the deterministic_returnined_order parameter were used on the
+    insert.
+
+    All of the attributes following this will only be used if this is True.
+
+    """
+
+    includes_upsert_behaviors: bool = False
+    """if True, we have to accommodate for upsert behaviors.
+
+    This will in some cases downgrade "insertmanyvalues" that requests
+    deterministic ordering.
+
+    """
+
+    sentinel_columns: Optional[Sequence[Column[Any]]] = None
+    """List of sentinel columns that were located.
+
+    This list is only here if the INSERT asked for
+    sort_by_parameter_order=True,
+    and dialect-appropriate sentinel columns were located.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 2.0.10
+
+    """
+
+    num_sentinel_columns: int = 0
+    """how many sentinel columns are in the above list, if any.
+
+    This is the same as
+    ``len(sentinel_columns) if sentinel_columns is not None else 0``
+
+    """
+
+    sentinel_param_keys: Optional[Sequence[str]] = None
+    """parameter str keys in each param dictionary / tuple
+    that would link to the client side "sentinel" values for that row, which
+    we can use to match up parameter sets to result rows.
+
+    This is only present if sentinel_columns is present and the INSERT
+    statement actually refers to client side values for these sentinel
+    columns.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 2.0.10
+
+    .. versionchanged:: 2.0.29 - the sequence is now string dictionary keys
+       only, used against the "compiled parameteters" collection before
+       the parameters were converted by bound parameter processors
+
+    """
+
+    implicit_sentinel: bool = False
+    """if True, we have exactly one sentinel column and it uses a server side
+    value, currently has to generate an incrementing integer value.
+
+    The dialect in question would have asserted that it supports receiving
+    these values back and sorting on that value as a means of guaranteeing
+    correlation with the incoming parameter list.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 2.0.10
+
+    """
+
+    embed_values_counter: bool = False
+    """Whether to embed an incrementing integer counter in each parameter
+    set within the VALUES clause as parameters are batched over.
+
+    This is only used for a specific INSERT..SELECT..VALUES..RETURNING syntax
+    where a subquery is used to produce value tuples.  Current support
+    includes PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 2.0.10
+
+    """
+
+
+class _InsertManyValuesBatch(NamedTuple):
+    """represents an individual batch SQL statement for insertmanyvalues.
+
+    This is passed through the
+    :meth:`.SQLCompiler._deliver_insertmanyvalues_batches` and
+    :meth:`.DefaultDialect._deliver_insertmanyvalues_batches` methods out
+    to the :class:`.Connection` within the
+    :meth:`.Connection._exec_insertmany_context` method.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 2.0.10
+
+    """
+
+    replaced_statement: str
+    replaced_parameters: _DBAPIAnyExecuteParams
+    processed_setinputsizes: Optional[_GenericSetInputSizesType]
+    batch: Sequence[_DBAPISingleExecuteParams]
+    sentinel_values: Sequence[Tuple[Any, ...]]
+    current_batch_size: int
+    batchnum: int
+    total_batches: int
+    rows_sorted: bool
+    is_downgraded: bool
+
+
+class InsertmanyvaluesSentinelOpts(FastIntFlag):
+    """bitflag enum indicating styles of PK defaults
+    which can work as implicit sentinel columns
+
+    """
+
+    NOT_SUPPORTED = 1
+    AUTOINCREMENT = 2
+    IDENTITY = 4
+    SEQUENCE = 8
+
+    ANY_AUTOINCREMENT = AUTOINCREMENT | IDENTITY | SEQUENCE
+    _SUPPORTED_OR_NOT = NOT_SUPPORTED | ANY_AUTOINCREMENT
+
+    USE_INSERT_FROM_SELECT = 16
+    RENDER_SELECT_COL_CASTS = 64
+
+
+class CompilerState(IntEnum):
+    COMPILING = 0
+    """statement is present, compilation phase in progress"""
+
+    STRING_APPLIED = 1
+    """statement is present, string form of the statement has been applied.
+
+    Additional processors by subclasses may still be pending.
+
+    """
+
+    NO_STATEMENT = 2
+    """compiler does not have a statement to compile, is used
+    for method access"""
+
+
+class Linting(IntEnum):
+    """represent preferences for the 'SQL linting' feature.
+
+    this feature currently includes support for flagging cartesian products
+    in SQL statements.
+
+    """
+
+    NO_LINTING = 0
+    "Disable all linting."
+
+    COLLECT_CARTESIAN_PRODUCTS = 1
+    """Collect data on FROMs and cartesian products and gather into
+    'self.from_linter'"""
+
+    WARN_LINTING = 2
+    "Emit warnings for linters that find problems"
+
+    FROM_LINTING = COLLECT_CARTESIAN_PRODUCTS | WARN_LINTING
+    """Warn for cartesian products; combines COLLECT_CARTESIAN_PRODUCTS
+    and WARN_LINTING"""
+
+
+NO_LINTING, COLLECT_CARTESIAN_PRODUCTS, WARN_LINTING, FROM_LINTING = tuple(
+    Linting
+)
+
+
+class FromLinter(collections.namedtuple("FromLinter", ["froms", "edges"])):
+    """represents current state for the "cartesian product" detection
+    feature."""
+
+    def lint(self, start=None):
+        froms = self.froms
+        if not froms:
+            return None, None
+
+        edges = set(self.edges)
+        the_rest = set(froms)
+
+        if start is not None:
+            start_with = start
+            the_rest.remove(start_with)
+        else:
+            start_with = the_rest.pop()
+
+        stack = collections.deque([start_with])
+
+        while stack and the_rest:
+            node = stack.popleft()
+            the_rest.discard(node)
+
+            # comparison of nodes in edges here is based on hash equality, as
+            # there are "annotated" elements that match the non-annotated ones.
+            #   to remove the need for in-python hash() calls, use native
+            # containment routines (e.g. "node in edge", "edge.index(node)")
+            to_remove = {edge for edge in edges if node in edge}
+
+            # appendleft the node in each edge that is not
+            # the one that matched.
+            stack.extendleft(edge[not edge.index(node)] for edge in to_remove)
+            edges.difference_update(to_remove)
+
+        # FROMS left over?  boom
+        if the_rest:
+            return the_rest, start_with
+        else:
+            return None, None
+
+    def warn(self, stmt_type="SELECT"):
+        the_rest, start_with = self.lint()
+
+        # FROMS left over?  boom
+        if the_rest:
+            froms = the_rest
+            if froms:
+                template = (
+                    "{stmt_type} statement has a cartesian product between "
+                    "FROM element(s) {froms} and "
+                    'FROM element "{start}".  Apply join condition(s) '
+                    "between each element to resolve."
+                )
+                froms_str = ", ".join(
+                    f'"{self.froms[from_]}"' for from_ in froms
+                )
+                message = template.format(
+                    stmt_type=stmt_type,
+                    froms=froms_str,
+                    start=self.froms[start_with],
+                )
+
+                util.warn(message)
+
+
+class Compiled:
+    """Represent a compiled SQL or DDL expression.
+
+    The ``__str__`` method of the ``Compiled`` object should produce
+    the actual text of the statement.  ``Compiled`` objects are
+    specific to their underlying database dialect, and also may
+    or may not be specific to the columns referenced within a
+    particular set of bind parameters.  In no case should the
+    ``Compiled`` object be dependent on the actual values of those
+    bind parameters, even though it may reference those values as
+    defaults.
+    """
+
+    statement: Optional[ClauseElement] = None
+    "The statement to compile."
+    string: str = ""
+    "The string representation of the ``statement``"
+
+    state: CompilerState
+    """description of the compiler's state"""
+
+    is_sql = False
+    is_ddl = False
+
+    _cached_metadata: Optional[CursorResultMetaData] = None
+
+    _result_columns: Optional[List[ResultColumnsEntry]] = None
+
+    schema_translate_map: Optional[SchemaTranslateMapType] = None
+
+    execution_options: _ExecuteOptions = util.EMPTY_DICT
+    """
+    Execution options propagated from the statement.   In some cases,
+    sub-elements of the statement can modify these.
+    """
+
+    preparer: IdentifierPreparer
+
+    _annotations: _AnnotationDict = util.EMPTY_DICT
+
+    compile_state: Optional[CompileState] = None
+    """Optional :class:`.CompileState` object that maintains additional
+    state used by the compiler.
+
+    Major executable objects such as :class:`_expression.Insert`,
+    :class:`_expression.Update`, :class:`_expression.Delete`,
+    :class:`_expression.Select` will generate this
+    state when compiled in order to calculate additional information about the
+    object.   For the top level object that is to be executed, the state can be
+    stored here where it can also have applicability towards result set
+    processing.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 1.4
+
+    """
+
+    dml_compile_state: Optional[CompileState] = None
+    """Optional :class:`.CompileState` assigned at the same point that
+    .isinsert, .isupdate, or .isdelete is assigned.
+
+    This will normally be the same object as .compile_state, with the
+    exception of cases like the :class:`.ORMFromStatementCompileState`
+    object.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 1.4.40
+
+    """
+
+    cache_key: Optional[CacheKey] = None
+    """The :class:`.CacheKey` that was generated ahead of creating this
+    :class:`.Compiled` object.
+
+    This is used for routines that need access to the original
+    :class:`.CacheKey` instance generated when the :class:`.Compiled`
+    instance was first cached, typically in order to reconcile
+    the original list of :class:`.BindParameter` objects with a
+    per-statement list that's generated on each call.
+
+    """
+
+    _gen_time: float
+    """Generation time of this :class:`.Compiled`, used for reporting
+    cache stats."""
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        dialect: Dialect,
+        statement: Optional[ClauseElement],
+        schema_translate_map: Optional[SchemaTranslateMapType] = None,
+        render_schema_translate: bool = False,
+        compile_kwargs: Mapping[str, Any] = util.immutabledict(),
+    ):
+        """Construct a new :class:`.Compiled` object.
+
+        :param dialect: :class:`.Dialect` to compile against.
+
+        :param statement: :class:`_expression.ClauseElement` to be compiled.
+
+        :param schema_translate_map: dictionary of schema names to be
+         translated when forming the resultant SQL
+
+         .. seealso::
+
+            :ref:`schema_translating`
+
+        :param compile_kwargs: additional kwargs that will be
+         passed to the initial call to :meth:`.Compiled.process`.
+
+
+        """
+        self.dialect = dialect
+        self.preparer = self.dialect.identifier_preparer
+        if schema_translate_map:
+            self.schema_translate_map = schema_translate_map
+            self.preparer = self.preparer._with_schema_translate(
+                schema_translate_map
+            )
+
+        if statement is not None:
+            self.state = CompilerState.COMPILING
+            self.statement = statement
+            self.can_execute = statement.supports_execution
+            self._annotations = statement._annotations
+            if self.can_execute:
+                if TYPE_CHECKING:
+                    assert isinstance(statement, Executable)
+                self.execution_options = statement._execution_options
+            self.string = self.process(self.statement, **compile_kwargs)
+
+            if render_schema_translate:
+                self.string = self.preparer._render_schema_translates(
+                    self.string, schema_translate_map
+                )
+
+            self.state = CompilerState.STRING_APPLIED
+        else:
+            self.state = CompilerState.NO_STATEMENT
+
+        self._gen_time = perf_counter()
+
+    def __init_subclass__(cls) -> None:
+        cls._init_compiler_cls()
+        return super().__init_subclass__()
+
+    @classmethod
+    def _init_compiler_cls(cls):
+        pass
+
+    def _execute_on_connection(
+        self, connection, distilled_params, execution_options
+    ):
+        if self.can_execute:
+            return connection._execute_compiled(
+                self, distilled_params, execution_options
+            )
+        else:
+            raise exc.ObjectNotExecutableError(self.statement)
+
+    def visit_unsupported_compilation(self, element, err, **kw):
+        raise exc.UnsupportedCompilationError(self, type(element)) from err
+
+    @property
+    def sql_compiler(self):
+        """Return a Compiled that is capable of processing SQL expressions.
+
+        If this compiler is one, it would likely just return 'self'.
+
+        """
+
+        raise NotImplementedError()
+
+    def process(self, obj: Visitable, **kwargs: Any) -> str:
+        return obj._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs)
+
+    def __str__(self) -> str:
+        """Return the string text of the generated SQL or DDL."""
+
+        if self.state is CompilerState.STRING_APPLIED:
+            return self.string
+        else:
+            return ""
+
+    def construct_params(
+        self,
+        params: Optional[_CoreSingleExecuteParams] = None,
+        extracted_parameters: Optional[Sequence[BindParameter[Any]]] = None,
+        escape_names: bool = True,
+    ) -> Optional[_MutableCoreSingleExecuteParams]:
+        """Return the bind params for this compiled object.
+
+        :param params: a dict of string/object pairs whose values will
+                       override bind values compiled in to the
+                       statement.
+        """
+
+        raise NotImplementedError()
+
+    @property
+    def params(self):
+        """Return the bind params for this compiled object."""
+        return self.construct_params()
+
+
+class TypeCompiler(util.EnsureKWArg):
+    """Produces DDL specification for TypeEngine objects."""
+
+    ensure_kwarg = r"visit_\w+"
+
+    def __init__(self, dialect: Dialect):
+        self.dialect = dialect
+
+    def process(self, type_: TypeEngine[Any], **kw: Any) -> str:
+        if (
+            type_._variant_mapping
+            and self.dialect.name in type_._variant_mapping
+        ):
+            type_ = type_._variant_mapping[self.dialect.name]
+        return type_._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw)
+
+    def visit_unsupported_compilation(
+        self, element: Any, err: Exception, **kw: Any
+    ) -> NoReturn:
+        raise exc.UnsupportedCompilationError(self, element) from err
+
+
+# this was a Visitable, but to allow accurate detection of
+# column elements this is actually a column element
+class _CompileLabel(
+    roles.BinaryElementRole[Any], elements.CompilerColumnElement
+):
+    """lightweight label object which acts as an expression.Label."""
+
+    __visit_name__ = "label"
+    __slots__ = "element", "name", "_alt_names"
+
+    def __init__(self, col, name, alt_names=()):
+        self.element = col
+        self.name = name
+        self._alt_names = (col,) + alt_names
+
+    @property
+    def proxy_set(self):
+        return self.element.proxy_set
+
+    @property
+    def type(self):
+        return self.element.type
+
+    def self_group(self, **kw):
+        return self
+
+
+class ilike_case_insensitive(
+    roles.BinaryElementRole[Any], elements.CompilerColumnElement
+):
+    """produce a wrapping element for a case-insensitive portion of
+    an ILIKE construct.
+
+    The construct usually renders the ``lower()`` function, but on
+    PostgreSQL will pass silently with the assumption that "ILIKE"
+    is being used.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 2.0
+
+    """
+
+    __visit_name__ = "ilike_case_insensitive_operand"
+    __slots__ = "element", "comparator"
+
+    def __init__(self, element):
+        self.element = element
+        self.comparator = element.comparator
+
+    @property
+    def proxy_set(self):
+        return self.element.proxy_set
+
+    @property
+    def type(self):
+        return self.element.type
+
+    def self_group(self, **kw):
+        return self
+
+    def _with_binary_element_type(self, type_):
+        return ilike_case_insensitive(
+            self.element._with_binary_element_type(type_)
+        )
+
+
+class SQLCompiler(Compiled):
+    """Default implementation of :class:`.Compiled`.
+
+    Compiles :class:`_expression.ClauseElement` objects into SQL strings.
+
+    """
+
+    extract_map = EXTRACT_MAP
+
+    bindname_escape_characters: ClassVar[Mapping[str, str]] = (
+        util.immutabledict(
+            {
+                "%": "P",
+                "(": "A",
+                ")": "Z",
+                ":": "C",
+                ".": "_",
+                "[": "_",
+                "]": "_",
+                " ": "_",
+            }
+        )
+    )
+    """A mapping (e.g. dict or similar) containing a lookup of
+    characters keyed to replacement characters which will be applied to all
+    'bind names' used in SQL statements as a form of 'escaping'; the given
+    characters are replaced entirely with the 'replacement' character when
+    rendered in the SQL statement, and a similar translation is performed
+    on the incoming names used in parameter dictionaries passed to methods
+    like :meth:`_engine.Connection.execute`.
+
+    This allows bound parameter names used in :func:`_sql.bindparam` and
+    other constructs to have any arbitrary characters present without any
+    concern for characters that aren't allowed at all on the target database.
+
+    Third party dialects can establish their own dictionary here to replace the
+    default mapping, which will ensure that the particular characters in the
+    mapping will never appear in a bound parameter name.
+
+    The dictionary is evaluated at **class creation time**, so cannot be
+    modified at runtime; it must be present on the class when the class
+    is first declared.
+
+    Note that for dialects that have additional bound parameter rules such
+    as additional restrictions on leading characters, the
+    :meth:`_sql.SQLCompiler.bindparam_string` method may need to be augmented.
+    See the cx_Oracle compiler for an example of this.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 2.0.0rc1
+
+    """
+
+    _bind_translate_re: ClassVar[Pattern[str]]
+    _bind_translate_chars: ClassVar[Mapping[str, str]]
+
+    is_sql = True
+
+    compound_keywords = COMPOUND_KEYWORDS
+
+    isdelete: bool = False
+    isinsert: bool = False
+    isupdate: bool = False
+    """class-level defaults which can be set at the instance
+    level to define if this Compiled instance represents
+    INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE
+    """
+
+    postfetch: Optional[List[Column[Any]]]
+    """list of columns that can be post-fetched after INSERT or UPDATE to
+    receive server-updated values"""
+
+    insert_prefetch: Sequence[Column[Any]] = ()
+    """list of columns for which default values should be evaluated before
+    an INSERT takes place"""
+
+    update_prefetch: Sequence[Column[Any]] = ()
+    """list of columns for which onupdate default values should be evaluated
+    before an UPDATE takes place"""
+
+    implicit_returning: Optional[Sequence[ColumnElement[Any]]] = None
+    """list of "implicit" returning columns for a toplevel INSERT or UPDATE
+    statement, used to receive newly generated values of columns.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 2.0  ``implicit_returning`` replaces the previous
+       ``returning`` collection, which was not a generalized RETURNING
+       collection and instead was in fact specific to the "implicit returning"
+       feature.
+
+    """
+
+    isplaintext: bool = False
+
+    binds: Dict[str, BindParameter[Any]]
+    """a dictionary of bind parameter keys to BindParameter instances."""
+
+    bind_names: Dict[BindParameter[Any], str]
+    """a dictionary of BindParameter instances to "compiled" names
+    that are actually present in the generated SQL"""
+
+    stack: List[_CompilerStackEntry]
+    """major statements such as SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE are
+    tracked in this stack using an entry format."""
+
+    returning_precedes_values: bool = False
+    """set to True classwide to generate RETURNING
+    clauses before the VALUES or WHERE clause (i.e. MSSQL)
+    """
+
+    render_table_with_column_in_update_from: bool = False
+    """set to True classwide to indicate the SET clause
+    in a multi-table UPDATE statement should qualify
+    columns with the table name (i.e. MySQL only)
+    """
+
+    ansi_bind_rules: bool = False
+    """SQL 92 doesn't allow bind parameters to be used
+    in the columns clause of a SELECT, nor does it allow
+    ambiguous expressions like "? = ?".  A compiler
+    subclass can set this flag to False if the target
+    driver/DB enforces this
+    """
+
+    bindtemplate: str
+    """template to render bound parameters based on paramstyle."""
+
+    compilation_bindtemplate: str
+    """template used by compiler to render parameters before positional
+    paramstyle application"""
+
+    _numeric_binds_identifier_char: str
+    """Character that's used to as the identifier of a numerical bind param.
+    For example if this char is set to ``$``, numerical binds will be rendered
+    in the form ``$1, $2, $3``.
+    """
+
+    _result_columns: List[ResultColumnsEntry]
+    """relates label names in the final SQL to a tuple of local
+    column/label name, ColumnElement object (if any) and
+    TypeEngine. CursorResult uses this for type processing and
+    column targeting"""
+
+    _textual_ordered_columns: bool = False
+    """tell the result object that the column names as rendered are important,
+    but they are also "ordered" vs. what is in the compiled object here.
+
+    As of 1.4.42 this condition is only present when the statement is a
+    TextualSelect, e.g. text("....").columns(...), where it is required
+    that the columns are considered positionally and not by name.
+
+    """
+
+    _ad_hoc_textual: bool = False
+    """tell the result that we encountered text() or '*' constructs in the
+    middle of the result columns, but we also have compiled columns, so
+    if the number of columns in cursor.description does not match how many
+    expressions we have, that means we can't rely on positional at all and
+    should match on name.
+
+    """
+
+    _ordered_columns: bool = True
+    """
+    if False, means we can't be sure the list of entries
+    in _result_columns is actually the rendered order.  Usually
+    True unless using an unordered TextualSelect.
+    """
+
+    _loose_column_name_matching: bool = False
+    """tell the result object that the SQL statement is textual, wants to match
+    up to Column objects, and may be using the ._tq_label in the SELECT rather
+    than the base name.
+
+    """
+
+    _numeric_binds: bool = False
+    """
+    True if paramstyle is "numeric".  This paramstyle is trickier than
+    all the others.
+
+    """
+
+    _render_postcompile: bool = False
+    """
+    whether to render out POSTCOMPILE params during the compile phase.
+
+    This attribute is used only for end-user invocation of stmt.compile();
+    it's never used for actual statement execution, where instead the
+    dialect internals access and render the internal postcompile structure
+    directly.
+
+    """
+
+    _post_compile_expanded_state: Optional[ExpandedState] = None
+    """When render_postcompile is used, the ``ExpandedState`` used to create
+    the "expanded" SQL is assigned here, and then used by the ``.params``
+    accessor and ``.construct_params()`` methods for their return values.
+
+    .. versionadded:: 2.0.0rc1
+
+    """
+
+    _pre_expanded_string: Optional[str] = None
+    """Stores the original string SQL before 'post_compile' is applied,
+    for cases where 'post_compile' were used.
+
+    """
+
+    _pre_expanded_positiontup: Optional[List[str]] = None
+
+    _insertmanyvalues: Optional[_InsertManyValues] = None
+
+    _insert_crud_params: Optional[crud._CrudParamSequence] = None
+
+    literal_execute_params: FrozenSet[BindParameter[Any]] = frozenset()
+    """bindparameter objects that are rendered as literal values at statement
+    execution time.
+
+    """
+
+    post_compile_params: FrozenSet[BindParameter[Any]] = frozenset()
+    """bindparameter objects that are rendered as bound parameter placeholders
+    at statement execution time.
+
+    """
+
+    escaped_bind_names: util.immutabledict[str, str] = util.EMPTY_DICT
+    """Late escaping of bound parameter names that has to be converted
+    to the original name when looking in the parameter dictionary.
+
+    """
+
+    has_out_parameters = False
+    """if True, there are bindparam() objects that have the isoutparam
+    flag set."""
+
+    postfetch_lastrowid = False
+    """if True, and this in insert, use cursor.lastrowid to populate
+    result.inserted_primary_key. """
+
+    _cache_key_bind_match: Optional[
+        Tuple[
+            Dict[
+                BindParameter[Any],
+                List[BindParameter[Any]],
+            ],
+            Dict[
+                str,
+                BindParameter[Any],
+            ],
+        ]
+    ] = None
+    """a mapping that will relate the BindParameter object we compile
+    to those that are part of the extracted collection of parameters
+    in the cache key, if we were given a cache key.
+
+    """
+
+    positiontup: Optional[List[str]] = None
+    """for a compiled construct that uses a positional paramstyle, will be
+    a sequence of strings, indicating the names of bound parameters in order.
+
+    This is used in order to render bound parameters in their correct order,
+    and is combined with the :attr:`_sql.Compiled.params` dictionary to
+    render parameters.
+
+    This sequence always contains the unescaped name of the parameters.
+
+    .. seealso::
+
+        :ref:`faq_sql_expression_string` - includes a usage example for
+        debugging use cases.
+
+    """
+    _values_bindparam: Optional[List[str]] = None
+
+    _visited_bindparam: Optional[List[str]] = None
+
+    inline: bool = False
+
+    ctes: Optional[MutableMapping[CTE, str]]
+
+    # Detect same CTE references - Dict[(level, name), cte]
+    # Level is required for supporting nesting
+    ctes_by_level_name: Dict[Tuple[int, str], CTE]
+
+    # To retrieve key/level in ctes_by_level_name -
+    # Dict[cte_reference, (level, cte_name, cte_opts)]
+    level_name_by_cte: Dict[CTE, Tuple[int, str, selectable._CTEOpts]]
+
+    ctes_recursive: bool
+
+    _post_compile_pattern = re.compile(r"__\[POSTCOMPILE_(\S+?)(~~.+?~~)?\]")
+    _pyformat_pattern = re.compile(r"%\(([^)]+?)\)s")
+    _positional_pattern = re.compile(
+        f"{_pyformat_pattern.pattern}|{_post_compile_pattern.pattern}"
+    )
+
+    @classmethod
+    def _init_compiler_cls(cls):
+        cls._init_bind_translate()
+
+    @classmethod
+    def _init_bind_translate(cls):
+        reg = re.escape("".join(cls.bindname_escape_characters))
+        cls._bind_translate_re = re.compile(f"[{reg}]")
+        cls._bind_translate_chars = cls.bindname_escape_characters
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        dialect: Dialect,
+        statement: Optional[ClauseElement],
+        cache_key: Optional[CacheKey] = None,
+        column_keys: Optional[Sequence[str]] = None,
+        for_executemany: bool = False,
+        linting: Linting = NO_LINTING,
+        _supporting_against: Optional[SQLCompiler] = None,
+        **kwargs: Any,
+    ):
+        """Construct a new :class:`.SQLCompiler` object.
+
+        :param dialect: :class:`.Dialect` to be used
+
+        :param statement: :class:`_expression.ClauseElement` to be compiled
+
+        :param column_keys:  a list of column names to be compiled into an
+         INSERT or UPDATE statement.
+
+        :param for_executemany: whether INSERT / UPDATE statements should
+         expect that they are to be invoked in an "executemany" style,
+         which may impact how the statement will be expected to return the
+         values of defaults and autoincrement / sequences and similar.
+         Depending on the backend and driver in use, support for retrieving
+         these values may be disabled which means SQL expressions may
+         be rendered inline, RETURNING may not be rendered, etc.
+
+        :param kwargs: additional keyword arguments to be consumed by the
+         superclass.
+
+        """
+        self.column_keys = column_keys
+
+        self.cache_key = cache_key
+
+        if cache_key:
+            cksm = {b.key: b for b in cache_key[1]}
+            ckbm = {b: [b] for b in cache_key[1]}
+            self._cache_key_bind_match = (ckbm, cksm)
+
+        # compile INSERT/UPDATE defaults/sequences to expect executemany
+        # style execution, which may mean no pre-execute of defaults,
+        # or no RETURNING
+        self.for_executemany = for_executemany
+
+        self.linting = linting
+
+        # a dictionary of bind parameter keys to BindParameter
+        # instances.
+        self.binds = {}
+
+        # a dictionary of BindParameter instances to "compiled" names
+        # that are actually present in the generated SQL
+        self.bind_names = util.column_dict()
+
+        # stack which keeps track of nested SELECT statements
+        self.stack = []
+
+        self._result_columns = []
+
+        # true if the paramstyle is positional
+        self.positional = dialect.positional
+        if self.positional:
+            self._numeric_binds = nb = dialect.paramstyle.startswith("numeric")
+            if nb:
+                self._numeric_binds_identifier_char = (
+                    "$" if dialect.paramstyle == "numeric_dollar" else ":"
+                )
+
+            self.compilation_bindtemplate = _pyformat_template
+        else:
+            self.compilation_bindtemplate = BIND_TEMPLATES[dialect.paramstyle]
+
+        self.ctes = None
+
+        self.label_length = (
+            dialect.label_length or dialect.max_identifier_length
+        )
+
+        # a map which tracks "anonymous" identifiers that are created on
+        # the fly here
+        self.anon_map = prefix_anon_map()
+
+        # a map which tracks "truncated" names based on
+        # dialect.label_length or dialect.max_identifier_length
+        self.truncated_names: Dict[Tuple[str, str], str] = {}
+        self._truncated_counters: Dict[str, int] = {}
+
+        Compiled.__init__(self, dialect, statement, **kwargs)
+
+        if self.isinsert or self.isupdate or self.isdelete:
+            if TYPE_CHECKING:
+                assert isinstance(statement, UpdateBase)
+
+            if self.isinsert or self.isupdate:
+                if TYPE_CHECKING:
+                    assert isinstance(statement, ValuesBase)
+                if statement._inline:
+                    self.inline = True
+                elif self.for_executemany and (
+                    not self.isinsert
+                    or (
+                        self.dialect.insert_executemany_returning
+                        and statement._return_defaults
+                    )
+                ):
+                    self.inline = True
+
+        self.bindtemplate = BIND_TEMPLATES[dialect.paramstyle]
+
+        if _supporting_against:
+            self.__dict__.update(
+                {
+                    k: v
+                    for k, v in _supporting_against.__dict__.items()
+                    if k
+                    not in {
+                        "state",
+                        "dialect",
+                        "preparer",
+                        "positional",
+                        "_numeric_binds",
+                        "compilation_bindtemplate",
+                        "bindtemplate",
+                    }
+                }
+            )
+
+        if self.state is CompilerState.STRING_APPLIED:
+            if self.positional:
+                if self._numeric_binds:
+                    self._process_numeric()
+                else:
+                    self._process_positional()
+
+            if self._render_postcompile:
+                parameters = self.construct_params(
+                    escape_names=False,
+                    _no_postcompile=True,
+                )
+
+                self._process_parameters_for_postcompile(
+                    parameters, _populate_self=True
+                )
+
+    @property
+    def insert_single_values_expr(self) -> Optional[str]:
+        """When an INSERT is compiled with a single set of parameters inside
+        a VALUES expression, the string is assigned here, where it can be
+        used for insert batching schemes to rewrite the VALUES expression.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 1.3.8
+
+        .. versionchanged:: 2.0 This collection is no longer used by
+           SQLAlchemy's built-in dialects, in favor of the currently
+           internal ``_insertmanyvalues`` collection that is used only by
+           :class:`.SQLCompiler`.
+
+        """
+        if self._insertmanyvalues is None:
+            return None
+        else:
+            return self._insertmanyvalues.single_values_expr
+
+    @util.ro_memoized_property
+    def effective_returning(self) -> Optional[Sequence[ColumnElement[Any]]]:
+        """The effective "returning" columns for INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE.
+
+        This is either the so-called "implicit returning" columns which are
+        calculated by the compiler on the fly, or those present based on what's
+        present in ``self.statement._returning`` (expanded into individual
+        columns using the ``._all_selected_columns`` attribute) i.e. those set
+        explicitly using the :meth:`.UpdateBase.returning` method.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 2.0
+
+        """
+        if self.implicit_returning:
+            return self.implicit_returning
+        elif self.statement is not None and is_dml(self.statement):
+            return [
+                c
+                for c in self.statement._all_selected_columns
+                if is_column_element(c)
+            ]
+
+        else:
+            return None
+
+    @property
+    def returning(self):
+        """backwards compatibility; returns the
+        effective_returning collection.
+
+        """
+        return self.effective_returning
+
+    @property
+    def current_executable(self):
+        """Return the current 'executable' that is being compiled.
+
+        This is currently the :class:`_sql.Select`, :class:`_sql.Insert`,
+        :class:`_sql.Update`, :class:`_sql.Delete`,
+        :class:`_sql.CompoundSelect` object that is being compiled.
+        Specifically it's assigned to the ``self.stack`` list of elements.
+
+        When a statement like the above is being compiled, it normally
+        is also assigned to the ``.statement`` attribute of the
+        :class:`_sql.Compiler` object.   However, all SQL constructs are
+        ultimately nestable, and this attribute should never be consulted
+        by a ``visit_`` method, as it is not guaranteed to be assigned
+        nor guaranteed to correspond to the current statement being compiled.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 1.3.21
+
+            For compatibility with previous versions, use the following
+            recipe::
+
+                statement = getattr(self, "current_executable", False)
+                if statement is False:
+                    statement = self.stack[-1]["selectable"]
+
+            For versions 1.4 and above, ensure only .current_executable
+            is used; the format of "self.stack" may change.
+
+
+        """
+        try:
+            return self.stack[-1]["selectable"]
+        except IndexError as ie:
+            raise IndexError("Compiler does not have a stack entry") from ie
+
+    @property
+    def prefetch(self):
+        return list(self.insert_prefetch) + list(self.update_prefetch)
+
+    @util.memoized_property
+    def _global_attributes(self) -> Dict[Any, Any]:
+        return {}
+
+    @util.memoized_instancemethod
+    def _init_cte_state(self) -> MutableMapping[CTE, str]:
+        """Initialize collections related to CTEs only if
+        a CTE is located, to save on the overhead of
+        these collections otherwise.
+
+        """
+        # collect CTEs to tack on top of a SELECT
+        # To store the query to print - Dict[cte, text_query]
+        ctes: MutableMapping[CTE, str] = util.OrderedDict()
+        self.ctes = ctes
+
+        # Detect same CTE references - Dict[(level, name), cte]
+        # Level is required for supporting nesting
+        self.ctes_by_level_name = {}
+
+        # To retrieve key/level in ctes_by_level_name -
+        # Dict[cte_reference, (level, cte_name, cte_opts)]
+        self.level_name_by_cte = {}
+
+        self.ctes_recursive = False
+
+        return ctes
+
+    @contextlib.contextmanager
+    def _nested_result(self):
+        """special API to support the use case of 'nested result sets'"""
+        result_columns, ordered_columns = (
+            self._result_columns,
+            self._ordered_columns,
+        )
+        self._result_columns, self._ordered_columns = [], False
+
+        try:
+            if self.stack:
+                entry = self.stack[-1]
+                entry["need_result_map_for_nested"] = True
+            else:
+                entry = None
+            yield self._result_columns, self._ordered_columns
+        finally:
+            if entry:
+                entry.pop("need_result_map_for_nested")
+            self._result_columns, self._ordered_columns = (
+                result_columns,
+                ordered_columns,
+            )
+
+    def _process_positional(self):
+        assert not self.positiontup
+        assert self.state is CompilerState.STRING_APPLIED
+        assert not self._numeric_binds
+
+        if self.dialect.paramstyle == "format":
+            placeholder = "%s"
+        else:
+            assert self.dialect.paramstyle == "qmark"
+            placeholder = "?"
+
+        positions = []
+
+        def find_position(m: re.Match[str]) -> str:
+            normal_bind = m.group(1)
+            if normal_bind:
+                positions.append(normal_bind)
+                return placeholder
+            else:
+                # this a post-compile bind
+                positions.append(m.group(2))
+                return m.group(0)
+
+        self.string = re.sub(
+            self._positional_pattern, find_position, self.string
+        )
+
+        if self.escaped_bind_names:
+            reverse_escape = {v: k for k, v in self.escaped_bind_names.items()}
+            assert len(self.escaped_bind_names) == len(reverse_escape)
+            self.positiontup = [
+                reverse_escape.get(name, name) for name in positions
+            ]
+        else:
+            self.positiontup = positions
+
+        if self._insertmanyvalues:
+            positions = []
+
+            single_values_expr = re.sub(
+                self._positional_pattern,
+                find_position,
+                self._insertmanyvalues.single_values_expr,
+            )
+            insert_crud_params = [
+                (
+                    v[0],
+                    v[1],
+                    re.sub(self._positional_pattern, find_position, v[2]),
+                    v[3],
+                )
+                for v in self._insertmanyvalues.insert_crud_params
+            ]
+
+            self._insertmanyvalues = self._insertmanyvalues._replace(
+                single_values_expr=single_values_expr,
+                insert_crud_params=insert_crud_params,
+            )
+
+    def _process_numeric(self):
+        assert self._numeric_binds
+        assert self.state is CompilerState.STRING_APPLIED
+
+        num = 1
+        param_pos: Dict[str, str] = {}
+        order: Iterable[str]
+        if self._insertmanyvalues and self._values_bindparam is not None:
+            # bindparams that are not in values are always placed first.
+            # this avoids the need of changing them when using executemany
+            # values () ()
+            order = itertools.chain(
+                (
+                    name
+                    for name in self.bind_names.values()
+                    if name not in self._values_bindparam
+                ),
+                self.bind_names.values(),
+            )
+        else:
+            order = self.bind_names.values()
+
+        for bind_name in order:
+            if bind_name in param_pos:
+                continue
+            bind = self.binds[bind_name]
+            if (
+                bind in self.post_compile_params
+                or bind in self.literal_execute_params
+            ):
+                # set to None to just mark the in positiontup, it will not
+                # be replaced below.
+                param_pos[bind_name] = None  # type: ignore
+            else:
+                ph = f"{self._numeric_binds_identifier_char}{num}"
+                num += 1
+                param_pos[bind_name] = ph
+
+        self.next_numeric_pos = num
+
+        self.positiontup = list(param_pos)
+        if self.escaped_bind_names:
+            len_before = len(param_pos)
+            param_pos = {
+                self.escaped_bind_names.get(name, name): pos
+                for name, pos in param_pos.items()
+            }
+            assert len(param_pos) == len_before
+
+        # Can't use format here since % chars are not escaped.
+        self.string = self._pyformat_pattern.sub(
+            lambda m: param_pos[m.group(1)], self.string
+        )
+
+        if self._insertmanyvalues:
+            single_values_expr = (
+                # format is ok here since single_values_expr includes only
+                # place-holders
+                self._insertmanyvalues.single_values_expr
+                % param_pos
+            )
+            insert_crud_params = [
+                (v[0], v[1], "%s", v[3])
+                for v in self._insertmanyvalues.insert_crud_params
+            ]
+
+            self._insertmanyvalues = self._insertmanyvalues._replace(
+                # This has the numbers (:1, :2)
+                single_values_expr=single_values_expr,
+                # The single binds are instead %s so they can be formatted
+                insert_crud_params=insert_crud_params,
+            )
+
+    @util.memoized_property
+    def _bind_processors(
+        self,
+    ) -> MutableMapping[
+        str, Union[_BindProcessorType[Any], Sequence[_BindProcessorType[Any]]]
+    ]:
+        # mypy is not able to see the two value types as the above Union,
+        # it just sees "object".  don't know how to resolve
+        return {
+            key: value  # type: ignore
+            for key, value in (
+                (
+                    self.bind_names[bindparam],
+                    (
+                        bindparam.type._cached_bind_processor(self.dialect)
+                        if not bindparam.type._is_tuple_type
+                        else tuple(
+                            elem_type._cached_bind_processor(self.dialect)
+                            for elem_type in cast(
+                                TupleType, bindparam.type
+                            ).types
+                        )
+                    ),
+                )
+                for bindparam in self.bind_names
+            )
+            if value is not None
+        }
+
+    def is_subquery(self):
+        return len(self.stack) > 1
+
+    @property
+    def sql_compiler(self):
+        return self
+
+    def construct_expanded_state(
+        self,
+        params: Optional[_CoreSingleExecuteParams] = None,
+        escape_names: bool = True,
+    ) -> ExpandedState:
+        """Return a new :class:`.ExpandedState` for a given parameter set.
+
+        For queries that use "expanding" or other late-rendered parameters,
+        this method will provide for both the finalized SQL string as well
+        as the parameters that would be used for a particular parameter set.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 2.0.0rc1
+
+        """
+        parameters = self.construct_params(
+            params,
+            escape_names=escape_names,
+            _no_postcompile=True,
+        )
+        return self._process_parameters_for_postcompile(
+            parameters,
+        )
+
+    def construct_params(
+        self,
+        params: Optional[_CoreSingleExecuteParams] = None,
+        extracted_parameters: Optional[Sequence[BindParameter[Any]]] = None,
+        escape_names: bool = True,
+        _group_number: Optional[int] = None,
+        _check: bool = True,
+        _no_postcompile: bool = False,
+    ) -> _MutableCoreSingleExecuteParams:
+        """return a dictionary of bind parameter keys and values"""
+
+        if self._render_postcompile and not _no_postcompile:
+            assert self._post_compile_expanded_state is not None
+            if not params:
+                return dict(self._post_compile_expanded_state.parameters)
+            else:
+                raise exc.InvalidRequestError(
+                    "can't construct new parameters when render_postcompile "
+                    "is used; the statement is hard-linked to the original "
+                    "parameters.  Use construct_expanded_state to generate a "
+                    "new statement and parameters."
+                )
+
+        has_escaped_names = escape_names and bool(self.escaped_bind_names)
+
+        if extracted_parameters:
+            # related the bound parameters collected in the original cache key
+            # to those collected in the incoming cache key.  They will not have
+            # matching names but they will line up positionally in the same
+            # way.   The parameters present in self.bind_names may be clones of
+            # these original cache key params in the case of DML but the .key
+            # will be guaranteed to match.
+            if self.cache_key is None:
+                raise exc.CompileError(
+                    "This compiled object has no original cache key; "
+                    "can't pass extracted_parameters to construct_params"
+                )
+            else:
+                orig_extracted = self.cache_key[1]
+
+            ckbm_tuple = self._cache_key_bind_match
+            assert ckbm_tuple is not None
+            ckbm, _ = ckbm_tuple
+            resolved_extracted = {
+                bind: extracted
+                for b, extracted in zip(orig_extracted, extracted_parameters)
+                for bind in ckbm[b]
+            }
+        else:
+            resolved_extracted = None
+
+        if params:
+            pd = {}
+            for bindparam, name in self.bind_names.items():
+                escaped_name = (
+                    self.escaped_bind_names.get(name, name)
+                    if has_escaped_names
+                    else name
+                )
+
+                if bindparam.key in params:
+                    pd[escaped_name] = params[bindparam.key]
+                elif name in params:
+                    pd[escaped_name] = params[name]
+
+                elif _check and bindparam.required:
+                    if _group_number:
+                        raise exc.InvalidRequestError(
+                            "A value is required for bind parameter %r, "
+                            "in parameter group %d"
+                            % (bindparam.key, _group_number),
+                            code="cd3x",
+                        )
+                    else:
+                        raise exc.InvalidRequestError(
+                            "A value is required for bind parameter %r"
+                            % bindparam.key,
+                            code="cd3x",
+                        )
+                else:
+                    if resolved_extracted:
+                        value_param = resolved_extracted.get(
+                            bindparam, bindparam
+                        )
+                    else:
+                        value_param = bindparam
+
+                    if bindparam.callable:
+                        pd[escaped_name] = value_param.effective_value
+                    else:
+                        pd[escaped_name] = value_param.value
+            return pd
+        else:
+            pd = {}
+            for bindparam, name in self.bind_names.items():
+                escaped_name = (
+                    self.escaped_bind_names.get(name, name)
+                    if has_escaped_names
+                    else name
+                )
+
+                if _check and bindparam.required:
+                    if _group_number:
+                        raise exc.InvalidRequestError(
+                            "A value is required for bind parameter %r, "
+                            "in parameter group %d"
+                            % (bindparam.key, _group_number),
+                            code="cd3x",
+                        )
+                    else:
+                        raise exc.InvalidRequestError(
+                            "A value is required for bind parameter %r"
+                            % bindparam.key,
+                            code="cd3x",
+                        )
+
+                if resolved_extracted:
+                    value_param = resolved_extracted.get(bindparam, bindparam)
+                else:
+                    value_param = bindparam
+
+                if bindparam.callable:
+                    pd[escaped_name] = value_param.effective_value
+                else:
+                    pd[escaped_name] = value_param.value
+
+            return pd
+
+    @util.memoized_instancemethod
+    def _get_set_input_sizes_lookup(self):
+        dialect = self.dialect
+
+        include_types = dialect.include_set_input_sizes
+        exclude_types = dialect.exclude_set_input_sizes
+
+        dbapi = dialect.dbapi
+
+        def lookup_type(typ):
+            dbtype = typ._unwrapped_dialect_impl(dialect).get_dbapi_type(dbapi)
+
+            if (
+                dbtype is not None
+                and (exclude_types is None or dbtype not in exclude_types)
+                and (include_types is None or dbtype in include_types)
+            ):
+                return dbtype
+            else:
+                return None
+
+        inputsizes = {}
+
+        literal_execute_params = self.literal_execute_params
+
+        for bindparam in self.bind_names:
+            if bindparam in literal_execute_params:
+                continue
+
+            if bindparam.type._is_tuple_type:
+                inputsizes[bindparam] = [
+                    lookup_type(typ)
+                    for typ in cast(TupleType, bindparam.type).types
+                ]
+            else:
+                inputsizes[bindparam] = lookup_type(bindparam.type)
+
+        return inputsizes
+
+    @property
+    def params(self):
+        """Return the bind param dictionary embedded into this
+        compiled object, for those values that are present.
+
+        .. seealso::
+
+            :ref:`faq_sql_expression_string` - includes a usage example for
+            debugging use cases.
+
+        """
+        return self.construct_params(_check=False)
+
+    def _process_parameters_for_postcompile(
+        self,
+        parameters: _MutableCoreSingleExecuteParams,
+        _populate_self: bool = False,
+    ) -> ExpandedState:
+        """handle special post compile parameters.
+
+        These include:
+
+        * "expanding" parameters -typically IN tuples that are rendered
+          on a per-parameter basis for an otherwise fixed SQL statement string.
+
+        * literal_binds compiled with the literal_execute flag.  Used for
+          things like SQL Server "TOP N" where the driver does not accommodate
+          N as a bound parameter.
+
+        """
+
+        expanded_parameters = {}
+        new_positiontup: Optional[List[str]]
+
+        pre_expanded_string = self._pre_expanded_string
+        if pre_expanded_string is None:
+            pre_expanded_string = self.string
+
+        if self.positional:
+            new_positiontup = []
+
+            pre_expanded_positiontup = self._pre_expanded_positiontup
+            if pre_expanded_positiontup is None:
+                pre_expanded_positiontup = self.positiontup
+
+        else:
+            new_positiontup = pre_expanded_positiontup = None
+
+        processors = self._bind_processors
+        single_processors = cast(
+            "Mapping[str, _BindProcessorType[Any]]", processors
+        )
+        tuple_processors = cast(
+            "Mapping[str, Sequence[_BindProcessorType[Any]]]", processors
+        )
+
+        new_processors: Dict[str, _BindProcessorType[Any]] = {}
+
+        replacement_expressions: Dict[str, Any] = {}
+        to_update_sets: Dict[str, Any] = {}
+
+        # notes:
+        # *unescaped* parameter names in:
+        # self.bind_names, self.binds, self._bind_processors, self.positiontup
+        #
+        # *escaped* parameter names in:
+        # construct_params(), replacement_expressions
+
+        numeric_positiontup: Optional[List[str]] = None
+
+        if self.positional and pre_expanded_positiontup is not None:
+            names: Iterable[str] = pre_expanded_positiontup
+            if self._numeric_binds:
+                numeric_positiontup = []
+        else:
+            names = self.bind_names.values()
+
+        ebn = self.escaped_bind_names
+        for name in names:
+            escaped_name = ebn.get(name, name) if ebn else name
+            parameter = self.binds[name]
+
+            if parameter in self.literal_execute_params:
+                if escaped_name not in replacement_expressions:
+                    replacement_expressions[escaped_name] = (
+                        self.render_literal_bindparam(
+                            parameter,
+                            render_literal_value=parameters.pop(escaped_name),
+                        )
+                    )
+                continue
+
+            if parameter in self.post_compile_params:
+                if escaped_name in replacement_expressions:
+                    to_update = to_update_sets[escaped_name]
+                    values = None
+                else:
+                    # we are removing the parameter from parameters
+                    # because it is a list value, which is not expected by
+                    # TypeEngine objects that would otherwise be asked to
+                    # process it. the single name is being replaced with
+                    # individual numbered parameters for each value in the
+                    # param.
+                    #
+                    # note we are also inserting *escaped* parameter names
+                    # into the given dictionary.   default dialect will
+                    # use these param names directly as they will not be
+                    # in the escaped_bind_names dictionary.
+                    values = parameters.pop(name)
+
+                    leep_res = self._literal_execute_expanding_parameter(
+                        escaped_name, parameter, values
+                    )
+                    (to_update, replacement_expr) = leep_res
+
+                    to_update_sets[escaped_name] = to_update
+                    replacement_expressions[escaped_name] = replacement_expr
+
+                if not parameter.literal_execute:
+                    parameters.update(to_update)
+                    if parameter.type._is_tuple_type:
+                        assert values is not None
+                        new_processors.update(
+                            (
+                                "%s_%s_%s" % (name, i, j),
+                                tuple_processors[name][j - 1],
+                            )
+                            for i, tuple_element in enumerate(values, 1)
+                            for j, _ in enumerate(tuple_element, 1)
+                            if name in tuple_processors
+                            and tuple_processors[name][j - 1] is not None
+                        )
+                    else:
+                        new_processors.update(
+                            (key, single_processors[name])
+                            for key, _ in to_update
+                            if name in single_processors
+                        )
+                    if numeric_positiontup is not None:
+                        numeric_positiontup.extend(
+                            name for name, _ in to_update
+                        )
+                    elif new_positiontup is not None:
+                        # to_update has escaped names, but that's ok since
+                        # these are new names, that aren't in the
+                        # escaped_bind_names dict.
+                        new_positiontup.extend(name for name, _ in to_update)
+                    expanded_parameters[name] = [
+                        expand_key for expand_key, _ in to_update
+                    ]
+            elif new_positiontup is not None:
+                new_positiontup.append(name)
+
+        def process_expanding(m):
+            key = m.group(1)
+            expr = replacement_expressions[key]
+
+            # if POSTCOMPILE included a bind_expression, render that
+            # around each element
+            if m.group(2):
+                tok = m.group(2).split("~~")
+                be_left, be_right = tok[1], tok[3]
+                expr = ", ".join(
+                    "%s%s%s" % (be_left, exp, be_right)
+                    for exp in expr.split(", ")
+                )
+            return expr
+
+        statement = re.sub(
+            self._post_compile_pattern, process_expanding, pre_expanded_string
+        )
+
+        if numeric_positiontup is not None:
+            assert new_positiontup is not None
+            param_pos = {
+                key: f"{self._numeric_binds_identifier_char}{num}"
+                for num, key in enumerate(
+                    numeric_positiontup, self.next_numeric_pos
+                )
+            }
+            # Can't use format here since % chars are not escaped.
+            statement = self._pyformat_pattern.sub(
+                lambda m: param_pos[m.group(1)], statement
+            )
+            new_positiontup.extend(numeric_positiontup)
+
+        expanded_state = ExpandedState(
+            statement,
+            parameters,
+            new_processors,
+            new_positiontup,
+            expanded_parameters,
+        )
+
+        if _populate_self:
+            # this is for the "render_postcompile" flag, which is not
+            # otherwise used internally and is for end-user debugging and
+            # special use cases.
+            self._pre_expanded_string = pre_expanded_string
+            self._pre_expanded_positiontup = pre_expanded_positiontup
+            self.string = expanded_state.statement
+            self.positiontup = (
+                list(expanded_state.positiontup or ())
+                if self.positional
+                else None
+            )
+            self._post_compile_expanded_state = expanded_state
+
+        return expanded_state
+
+    @util.preload_module("sqlalchemy.engine.cursor")
+    def _create_result_map(self):
+        """utility method used for unit tests only."""
+        cursor = util.preloaded.engine_cursor
+        return cursor.CursorResultMetaData._create_description_match_map(
+            self._result_columns
+        )
+
+    # assigned by crud.py for insert/update statements
+    _get_bind_name_for_col: _BindNameForColProtocol
+
+    @util.memoized_property
+    def _within_exec_param_key_getter(self) -> Callable[[Any], str]:
+        getter = self._get_bind_name_for_col
+        return getter
+
+    @util.memoized_property
+    @util.preload_module("sqlalchemy.engine.result")
+    def _inserted_primary_key_from_lastrowid_getter(self):
+        result = util.preloaded.engine_result
+
+        param_key_getter = self._within_exec_param_key_getter
+
+        assert self.compile_state is not None
+        statement = self.compile_state.statement
+
+        if TYPE_CHECKING:
+            assert isinstance(statement, Insert)
+
+        table = statement.table
+
+        getters = [
+            (operator.methodcaller("get", param_key_getter(col), None), col)
+            for col in table.primary_key
+        ]
+
+        autoinc_getter = None
+        autoinc_col = table._autoincrement_column
+        if autoinc_col is not None:
+            # apply type post processors to the lastrowid
+            lastrowid_processor = autoinc_col.type._cached_result_processor(
+                self.dialect, None
+            )
+            autoinc_key = param_key_getter(autoinc_col)
+
+            # if a bind value is present for the autoincrement column
+            # in the parameters, we need to do the logic dictated by
+            # #7998; honor a non-None user-passed parameter over lastrowid.
+            # previously in the 1.4 series we weren't fetching lastrowid
+            # at all if the key were present in the parameters
+            if autoinc_key in self.binds:
+
+                def _autoinc_getter(lastrowid, parameters):
+                    param_value = parameters.get(autoinc_key, lastrowid)
+                    if param_value is not None:
+                        # they supplied non-None parameter, use that.
+                        # SQLite at least is observed to return the wrong
+                        # cursor.lastrowid for INSERT..ON CONFLICT so it
+                        # can't be used in all cases
+                        return param_value
+                    else:
+                        # use lastrowid
+                        return lastrowid
+
+                # work around mypy https://github.com/python/mypy/issues/14027
+                autoinc_getter = _autoinc_getter
+
+        else:
+            lastrowid_processor = None
+
+        row_fn = result.result_tuple([col.key for col in table.primary_key])
+
+        def get(lastrowid, parameters):
+            """given cursor.lastrowid value and the parameters used for INSERT,
+            return a "row" that represents the primary key, either by
+            using the "lastrowid" or by extracting values from the parameters
+            that were sent along with the INSERT.
+
+            """
+            if lastrowid_processor is not None:
+                lastrowid = lastrowid_processor(lastrowid)
+
+            if lastrowid is None:
+                return row_fn(getter(parameters) for getter, col in getters)
+            else:
+                return row_fn(
+                    (
+                        (
+                            autoinc_getter(lastrowid, parameters)
+                            if autoinc_getter is not None
+                            else lastrowid
+                        )
+                        if col is autoinc_col
+                        else getter(parameters)
+                    )
+                    for getter, col in getters
+                )
+
+        return get
+
+    @util.memoized_property
+    @util.preload_module("sqlalchemy.engine.result")
+    def _inserted_primary_key_from_returning_getter(self):
+        if typing.TYPE_CHECKING:
+            from ..engine import result
+        else:
+            result = util.preloaded.engine_result
+
+        assert self.compile_state is not None
+        statement = self.compile_state.statement
+
+        if TYPE_CHECKING:
+            assert isinstance(statement, Insert)
+
+        param_key_getter = self._within_exec_param_key_getter
+        table = statement.table
+
+        returning = self.implicit_returning
+        assert returning is not None
+        ret = {col: idx for idx, col in enumerate(returning)}
+
+        getters = cast(
+            "List[Tuple[Callable[[Any], Any], bool]]",
+            [
+                (
+                    (operator.itemgetter(ret[col]), True)
+                    if col in ret
+                    else (
+                        operator.methodcaller(
+                            "get", param_key_getter(col), None
+                        ),
+                        False,
+                    )
+                )
+                for col in table.primary_key
+            ],
+        )
+
+        row_fn = result.result_tuple([col.key for col in table.primary_key])
+
+        def get(row, parameters):
+            return row_fn(
+                getter(row) if use_row else getter(parameters)
+                for getter, use_row in getters
+            )
+
+        return get
+
+    def default_from(self):
+        """Called when a SELECT statement has no froms, and no FROM clause is
+        to be appended.
+
+        Gives Oracle a chance to tack on a ``FROM DUAL`` to the string output.
+
+        """
+        return ""
+
+    def visit_override_binds(self, override_binds, **kw):
+        """SQL compile the nested element of an _OverrideBinds with
+        bindparams swapped out.
+
+        The _OverrideBinds is not normally expected to be compiled; it
+        is meant to be used when an already cached statement is to be used,
+        the compilation was already performed, and only the bound params should
+        be swapped in at execution time.
+
+        However, there are test cases that exericise this object, and
+        additionally the ORM subquery loader is known to feed in expressions
+        which include this construct into new queries (discovered in #11173),
+        so it has to do the right thing at compile time as well.
+
+        """
+
+        # get SQL text first
+        sqltext = override_binds.element._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw)
+
+        # for a test compile that is not for caching, change binds after the
+        # fact.  note that we don't try to
+        # swap the bindparam as we compile, because our element may be
+        # elsewhere in the statement already (e.g. a subquery or perhaps a
+        # CTE) and was already visited / compiled. See
+        # test_relationship_criteria.py ->
+        #    test_selectinload_local_criteria_subquery
+        for k in override_binds.translate:
+            if k not in self.binds:
+                continue
+            bp = self.binds[k]
+
+            # so this would work, just change the value of bp in place.
+            # but we dont want to mutate things outside.
+            # bp.value = override_binds.translate[bp.key]
+            # continue
+
+            # instead, need to replace bp with new_bp or otherwise accommodate
+            # in all internal collections
+            new_bp = bp._with_value(
+                override_binds.translate[bp.key],
+                maintain_key=True,
+                required=False,
+            )
+
+            name = self.bind_names[bp]
+            self.binds[k] = self.binds[name] = new_bp
+            self.bind_names[new_bp] = name
+            self.bind_names.pop(bp, None)
+
+            if bp in self.post_compile_params:
+                self.post_compile_params |= {new_bp}
+            if bp in self.literal_execute_params:
+                self.literal_execute_params |= {new_bp}
+
+            ckbm_tuple = self._cache_key_bind_match
+            if ckbm_tuple:
+                ckbm, cksm = ckbm_tuple
+                for bp in bp._cloned_set:
+                    if bp.key in cksm:
+                        cb = cksm[bp.key]
+                        ckbm[cb].append(new_bp)
+
+        return sqltext
+
+    def visit_grouping(self, grouping, asfrom=False, **kwargs):
+        return "(" + grouping.element._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs) + ")"
+
+    def visit_select_statement_grouping(self, grouping, **kwargs):
+        return "(" + grouping.element._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs) + ")"
+
+    def visit_label_reference(
+        self, element, within_columns_clause=False, **kwargs
+    ):
+        if self.stack and self.dialect.supports_simple_order_by_label:
+            try:
+                compile_state = cast(
+                    "Union[SelectState, CompoundSelectState]",
+                    self.stack[-1]["compile_state"],
+                )
+            except KeyError as ke:
+                raise exc.CompileError(
+                    "Can't resolve label reference for ORDER BY / "
+                    "GROUP BY / DISTINCT etc."
+                ) from ke
+
+            (
+                with_cols,
+                only_froms,
+                only_cols,
+            ) = compile_state._label_resolve_dict
+            if within_columns_clause:
+                resolve_dict = only_froms
+            else:
+                resolve_dict = only_cols
+
+            # this can be None in the case that a _label_reference()
+            # were subject to a replacement operation, in which case
+            # the replacement of the Label element may have changed
+            # to something else like a ColumnClause expression.
+            order_by_elem = element.element._order_by_label_element
+
+            if (
+                order_by_elem is not None
+                and order_by_elem.name in resolve_dict
+                and order_by_elem.shares_lineage(
+                    resolve_dict[order_by_elem.name]
+                )
+            ):
+                kwargs["render_label_as_label"] = (
+                    element.element._order_by_label_element
+                )
+        return self.process(
+            element.element,
+            within_columns_clause=within_columns_clause,
+            **kwargs,
+        )
+
+    def visit_textual_label_reference(
+        self, element, within_columns_clause=False, **kwargs
+    ):
+        if not self.stack:
+            # compiling the element outside of the context of a SELECT
+            return self.process(element._text_clause)
+
+        try:
+            compile_state = cast(
+                "Union[SelectState, CompoundSelectState]",
+                self.stack[-1]["compile_state"],
+            )
+        except KeyError as ke:
+            coercions._no_text_coercion(
+                element.element,
+                extra=(
+                    "Can't resolve label reference for ORDER BY / "
+                    "GROUP BY / DISTINCT etc."
+                ),
+                exc_cls=exc.CompileError,
+                err=ke,
+            )
+
+        with_cols, only_froms, only_cols = compile_state._label_resolve_dict
+        try:
+            if within_columns_clause:
+                col = only_froms[element.element]
+            else:
+                col = with_cols[element.element]
+        except KeyError as err:
+            coercions._no_text_coercion(
+                element.element,
+                extra=(
+                    "Can't resolve label reference for ORDER BY / "
+                    "GROUP BY / DISTINCT etc."
+                ),
+                exc_cls=exc.CompileError,
+                err=err,
+            )
+        else:
+            kwargs["render_label_as_label"] = col
+            return self.process(
+                col, within_columns_clause=within_columns_clause, **kwargs
+            )
+
+    def visit_label(
+        self,
+        label,
+        add_to_result_map=None,
+        within_label_clause=False,
+        within_columns_clause=False,
+        render_label_as_label=None,
+        result_map_targets=(),
+        **kw,
+    ):
+        # only render labels within the columns clause
+        # or ORDER BY clause of a select.  dialect-specific compilers
+        # can modify this behavior.
+        render_label_with_as = (
+            within_columns_clause and not within_label_clause
+        )
+        render_label_only = render_label_as_label is label
+
+        if render_label_only or render_label_with_as:
+            if isinstance(label.name, elements._truncated_label):
+                labelname = self._truncated_identifier("colident", label.name)
+            else:
+                labelname = label.name
+
+        if render_label_with_as:
+            if add_to_result_map is not None:
+                add_to_result_map(
+                    labelname,
+                    label.name,
+                    (label, labelname) + label._alt_names + result_map_targets,
+                    label.type,
+                )
+            return (
+                label.element._compiler_dispatch(
+                    self,
+                    within_columns_clause=True,
+                    within_label_clause=True,
+                    **kw,
+                )
+                + OPERATORS[operators.as_]
+                + self.preparer.format_label(label, labelname)
+            )
+        elif render_label_only:
+            return self.preparer.format_label(label, labelname)
+        else:
+            return label.element._compiler_dispatch(
+                self, within_columns_clause=False, **kw
+            )
+
+    def _fallback_column_name(self, column):
+        raise exc.CompileError(
+            "Cannot compile Column object until its 'name' is assigned."
+        )
+
+    def visit_lambda_element(self, element, **kw):
+        sql_element = element._resolved
+        return self.process(sql_element, **kw)
+
+    def visit_column(
+        self,
+        column: ColumnClause[Any],
+        add_to_result_map: Optional[_ResultMapAppender] = None,
+        include_table: bool = True,
+        result_map_targets: Tuple[Any, ...] = (),
+        ambiguous_table_name_map: Optional[_AmbiguousTableNameMap] = None,
+        **kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> str:
+        name = orig_name = column.name
+        if name is None:
+            name = self._fallback_column_name(column)
+
+        is_literal = column.is_literal
+        if not is_literal and isinstance(name, elements._truncated_label):
+            name = self._truncated_identifier("colident", name)
+
+        if add_to_result_map is not None:
+            targets = (column, name, column.key) + result_map_targets
+            if column._tq_label:
+                targets += (column._tq_label,)
+
+            add_to_result_map(name, orig_name, targets, column.type)
+
+        if is_literal:
+            # note we are not currently accommodating for
+            # literal_column(quoted_name('ident', True)) here
+            name = self.escape_literal_column(name)
+        else:
+            name = self.preparer.quote(name)
+        table = column.table
+        if table is None or not include_table or not table.named_with_column:
+            return name
+        else:
+            effective_schema = self.preparer.schema_for_object(table)
+
+            if effective_schema:
+                schema_prefix = (
+                    self.preparer.quote_schema(effective_schema) + "."
+                )
+            else:
+                schema_prefix = ""
+
+            if TYPE_CHECKING:
+                assert isinstance(table, NamedFromClause)
+            tablename = table.name
+
+            if (
+                not effective_schema
+                and ambiguous_table_name_map
+                and tablename in ambiguous_table_name_map
+            ):
+                tablename = ambiguous_table_name_map[tablename]
+
+            if isinstance(tablename, elements._truncated_label):
+                tablename = self._truncated_identifier("alias", tablename)
+
+            return schema_prefix + self.preparer.quote(tablename) + "." + name
+
+    def visit_collation(self, element, **kw):
+        return self.preparer.format_collation(element.collation)
+
+    def visit_fromclause(self, fromclause, **kwargs):
+        return fromclause.name
+
+    def visit_index(self, index, **kwargs):
+        return index.name
+
+    def visit_typeclause(self, typeclause, **kw):
+        kw["type_expression"] = typeclause
+        kw["identifier_preparer"] = self.preparer
+        return self.dialect.type_compiler_instance.process(
+            typeclause.type, **kw
+        )
+
+    def post_process_text(self, text):
+        if self.preparer._double_percents:
+            text = text.replace("%", "%%")
+        return text
+
+    def escape_literal_column(self, text):
+        if self.preparer._double_percents:
+            text = text.replace("%", "%%")
+        return text
+
+    def visit_textclause(self, textclause, add_to_result_map=None, **kw):
+        def do_bindparam(m):
+            name = m.group(1)
+            if name in textclause._bindparams:
+                return self.process(textclause._bindparams[name], **kw)
+            else:
+                return self.bindparam_string(name, **kw)
+
+        if not self.stack:
+            self.isplaintext = True
+
+        if add_to_result_map:
+            # text() object is present in the columns clause of a
+            # select().   Add a no-name entry to the result map so that
+            # row[text()] produces a result
+            add_to_result_map(None, None, (textclause,), sqltypes.NULLTYPE)
+
+        # un-escape any \:params
+        return BIND_PARAMS_ESC.sub(
+            lambda m: m.group(1),
+            BIND_PARAMS.sub(
+                do_bindparam, self.post_process_text(textclause.text)
+            ),
+        )
+
+    def visit_textual_select(
+        self, taf, compound_index=None, asfrom=False, **kw
+    ):
+        toplevel = not self.stack
+        entry = self._default_stack_entry if toplevel else self.stack[-1]
+
+        new_entry: _CompilerStackEntry = {
+            "correlate_froms": set(),
+            "asfrom_froms": set(),
+            "selectable": taf,
+        }
+        self.stack.append(new_entry)
+
+        if taf._independent_ctes:
+            self._dispatch_independent_ctes(taf, kw)
+
+        populate_result_map = (
+            toplevel
+            or (
+                compound_index == 0
+                and entry.get("need_result_map_for_compound", False)
+            )
+            or entry.get("need_result_map_for_nested", False)
+        )
+
+        if populate_result_map:
+            self._ordered_columns = self._textual_ordered_columns = (
+                taf.positional
+            )
+
+            # enable looser result column matching when the SQL text links to
+            # Column objects by name only
+            self._loose_column_name_matching = not taf.positional and bool(
+                taf.column_args
+            )
+
+            for c in taf.column_args:
+                self.process(
+                    c,
+                    within_columns_clause=True,
+                    add_to_result_map=self._add_to_result_map,
+                )
+
+        text = self.process(taf.element, **kw)
+        if self.ctes:
+            nesting_level = len(self.stack) if not toplevel else None
+            text = self._render_cte_clause(nesting_level=nesting_level) + text
+
+        self.stack.pop(-1)
+
+        return text
+
+    def visit_null(self, expr, **kw):
+        return "NULL"
+
+    def visit_true(self, expr, **kw):
+        if self.dialect.supports_native_boolean:
+            return "true"
+        else:
+            return "1"
+
+    def visit_false(self, expr, **kw):
+        if self.dialect.supports_native_boolean:
+            return "false"
+        else:
+            return "0"
+
+    def _generate_delimited_list(self, elements, separator, **kw):
+        return separator.join(
+            s
+            for s in (c._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw) for c in elements)
+            if s
+        )
+
+    def _generate_delimited_and_list(self, clauses, **kw):
+        lcc, clauses = elements.BooleanClauseList._process_clauses_for_boolean(
+            operators.and_,
+            elements.True_._singleton,
+            elements.False_._singleton,
+            clauses,
+        )
+        if lcc == 1:
+            return clauses[0]._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw)
+        else:
+            separator = OPERATORS[operators.and_]
+            return separator.join(
+                s
+                for s in (c._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw) for c in clauses)
+                if s
+            )
+
+    def visit_tuple(self, clauselist, **kw):
+        return "(%s)" % self.visit_clauselist(clauselist, **kw)
+
+    def visit_clauselist(self, clauselist, **kw):
+        sep = clauselist.operator
+        if sep is None:
+            sep = " "
+        else:
+            sep = OPERATORS[clauselist.operator]
+
+        return self._generate_delimited_list(clauselist.clauses, sep, **kw)
+
+    def visit_expression_clauselist(self, clauselist, **kw):
+        operator_ = clauselist.operator
+
+        disp = self._get_operator_dispatch(
+            operator_, "expression_clauselist", None
+        )
+        if disp:
+            return disp(clauselist, operator_, **kw)
+
+        try:
+            opstring = OPERATORS[operator_]
+        except KeyError as err:
+            raise exc.UnsupportedCompilationError(self, operator_) from err
+        else:
+            kw["_in_operator_expression"] = True
+            return self._generate_delimited_list(
+                clauselist.clauses, opstring, **kw
+            )
+
+    def visit_case(self, clause, **kwargs):
+        x = "CASE "
+        if clause.value is not None:
+            x += clause.value._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs) + " "
+        for cond, result in clause.whens:
+            x += (
+                "WHEN "
+                + cond._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs)
+                + " THEN "
+                + result._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs)
+                + " "
+            )
+        if clause.else_ is not None:
+            x += (
+                "ELSE " + clause.else_._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs) + " "
+            )
+        x += "END"
+        return x
+
+    def visit_type_coerce(self, type_coerce, **kw):
+        return type_coerce.typed_expression._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw)
+
+    def visit_cast(self, cast, **kwargs):
+        type_clause = cast.typeclause._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs)
+        match = re.match("(.*)( COLLATE .*)", type_clause)
+        return "CAST(%s AS %s)%s" % (
+            cast.clause._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs),
+            match.group(1) if match else type_clause,
+            match.group(2) if match else "",
+        )
+
+    def _format_frame_clause(self, range_, **kw):
+        return "%s AND %s" % (
+            (
+                "UNBOUNDED PRECEDING"
+                if range_[0] is elements.RANGE_UNBOUNDED
+                else (
+                    "CURRENT ROW"
+                    if range_[0] is elements.RANGE_CURRENT
+                    else (
+                        "%s PRECEDING"
+                        % (
+                            self.process(
+                                elements.literal(abs(range_[0])), **kw
+                            ),
+                        )
+                        if range_[0] < 0
+                        else "%s FOLLOWING"
+                        % (self.process(elements.literal(range_[0]), **kw),)
+                    )
+                )
+            ),
+            (
+                "UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING"
+                if range_[1] is elements.RANGE_UNBOUNDED
+                else (
+                    "CURRENT ROW"
+                    if range_[1] is elements.RANGE_CURRENT
+                    else (
+                        "%s PRECEDING"
+                        % (
+                            self.process(
+                                elements.literal(abs(range_[1])), **kw
+                            ),
+                        )
+                        if range_[1] < 0
+                        else "%s FOLLOWING"
+                        % (self.process(elements.literal(range_[1]), **kw),)
+                    )
+                )
+            ),
+        )
+
+    def visit_over(self, over, **kwargs):
+        text = over.element._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs)
+        if over.range_:
+            range_ = "RANGE BETWEEN %s" % self._format_frame_clause(
+                over.range_, **kwargs
+            )
+        elif over.rows:
+            range_ = "ROWS BETWEEN %s" % self._format_frame_clause(
+                over.rows, **kwargs
+            )
+        else:
+            range_ = None
+
+        return "%s OVER (%s)" % (
+            text,
+            " ".join(
+                [
+                    "%s BY %s"
+                    % (word, clause._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs))
+                    for word, clause in (
+                        ("PARTITION", over.partition_by),
+                        ("ORDER", over.order_by),
+                    )
+                    if clause is not None and len(clause)
+                ]
+                + ([range_] if range_ else [])
+            ),
+        )
+
+    def visit_withingroup(self, withingroup, **kwargs):
+        return "%s WITHIN GROUP (ORDER BY %s)" % (
+            withingroup.element._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs),
+            withingroup.order_by._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs),
+        )
+
+    def visit_funcfilter(self, funcfilter, **kwargs):
+        return "%s FILTER (WHERE %s)" % (
+            funcfilter.func._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs),
+            funcfilter.criterion._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs),
+        )
+
+    def visit_extract(self, extract, **kwargs):
+        field = self.extract_map.get(extract.field, extract.field)
+        return "EXTRACT(%s FROM %s)" % (
+            field,
+            extract.expr._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs),
+        )
+
+    def visit_scalar_function_column(self, element, **kw):
+        compiled_fn = self.visit_function(element.fn, **kw)
+        compiled_col = self.visit_column(element, **kw)
+        return "(%s).%s" % (compiled_fn, compiled_col)
+
+    def visit_function(
+        self,
+        func: Function[Any],
+        add_to_result_map: Optional[_ResultMapAppender] = None,
+        **kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> str:
+        if add_to_result_map is not None:
+            add_to_result_map(func.name, func.name, (), func.type)
+
+        disp = getattr(self, "visit_%s_func" % func.name.lower(), None)
+
+        text: str
+
+        if disp:
+            text = disp(func, **kwargs)
+        else:
+            name = FUNCTIONS.get(func._deannotate().__class__, None)
+            if name:
+                if func._has_args:
+                    name += "%(expr)s"
+            else:
+                name = func.name
+                name = (
+                    self.preparer.quote(name)
+                    if self.preparer._requires_quotes_illegal_chars(name)
+                    or isinstance(name, elements.quoted_name)
+                    else name
+                )
+                name = name + "%(expr)s"
+            text = ".".join(
+                [
+                    (
+                        self.preparer.quote(tok)
+                        if self.preparer._requires_quotes_illegal_chars(tok)
+                        or isinstance(name, elements.quoted_name)
+                        else tok
+                    )
+                    for tok in func.packagenames
+                ]
+                + [name]
+            ) % {"expr": self.function_argspec(func, **kwargs)}
+
+        if func._with_ordinality:
+            text += " WITH ORDINALITY"
+        return text
+
+    def visit_next_value_func(self, next_value, **kw):
+        return self.visit_sequence(next_value.sequence)
+
+    def visit_sequence(self, sequence, **kw):
+        raise NotImplementedError(
+            "Dialect '%s' does not support sequence increments."
+            % self.dialect.name
+        )
+
+    def function_argspec(self, func, **kwargs):
+        return func.clause_expr._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs)
+
+    def visit_compound_select(
+        self, cs, asfrom=False, compound_index=None, **kwargs
+    ):
+        toplevel = not self.stack
+
+        compile_state = cs._compile_state_factory(cs, self, **kwargs)
+
+        if toplevel and not self.compile_state:
+            self.compile_state = compile_state
+
+        compound_stmt = compile_state.statement
+
+        entry = self._default_stack_entry if toplevel else self.stack[-1]
+        need_result_map = toplevel or (
+            not compound_index
+            and entry.get("need_result_map_for_compound", False)
+        )
+
+        # indicates there is already a CompoundSelect in play
+        if compound_index == 0:
+            entry["select_0"] = cs
+
+        self.stack.append(
+            {
+                "correlate_froms": entry["correlate_froms"],
+                "asfrom_froms": entry["asfrom_froms"],
+                "selectable": cs,
+                "compile_state": compile_state,
+                "need_result_map_for_compound": need_result_map,
+            }
+        )
+
+        if compound_stmt._independent_ctes:
+            self._dispatch_independent_ctes(compound_stmt, kwargs)
+
+        keyword = self.compound_keywords[cs.keyword]
+
+        text = (" " + keyword + " ").join(
+            (
+                c._compiler_dispatch(
+                    self, asfrom=asfrom, compound_index=i, **kwargs
+                )
+                for i, c in enumerate(cs.selects)
+            )
+        )
+
+        kwargs["include_table"] = False
+        text += self.group_by_clause(cs, **dict(asfrom=asfrom, **kwargs))
+        text += self.order_by_clause(cs, **kwargs)
+        if cs._has_row_limiting_clause:
+            text += self._row_limit_clause(cs, **kwargs)
+
+        if self.ctes:
+            nesting_level = len(self.stack) if not toplevel else None
+            text = (
+                self._render_cte_clause(
+                    nesting_level=nesting_level,
+                    include_following_stack=True,
+                )
+                + text
+            )
+
+        self.stack.pop(-1)
+        return text
+
+    def _row_limit_clause(self, cs, **kwargs):
+        if cs._fetch_clause is not None:
+            return self.fetch_clause(cs, **kwargs)
+        else:
+            return self.limit_clause(cs, **kwargs)
+
+    def _get_operator_dispatch(self, operator_, qualifier1, qualifier2):
+        attrname = "visit_%s_%s%s" % (
+            operator_.__name__,
+            qualifier1,
+            "_" + qualifier2 if qualifier2 else "",
+        )
+        return getattr(self, attrname, None)
+
+    def visit_unary(
+        self, unary, add_to_result_map=None, result_map_targets=(), **kw
+    ):
+        if add_to_result_map is not None:
+            result_map_targets += (unary,)
+            kw["add_to_result_map"] = add_to_result_map
+            kw["result_map_targets"] = result_map_targets
+
+        if unary.operator:
+            if unary.modifier:
+                raise exc.CompileError(
+                    "Unary expression does not support operator "
+                    "and modifier simultaneously"
+                )
+            disp = self._get_operator_dispatch(
+                unary.operator, "unary", "operator"
+            )
+            if disp:
+                return disp(unary, unary.operator, **kw)
+            else:
+                return self._generate_generic_unary_operator(
+                    unary, OPERATORS[unary.operator], **kw
+                )
+        elif unary.modifier:
+            disp = self._get_operator_dispatch(
+                unary.modifier, "unary", "modifier"
+            )
+            if disp:
+                return disp(unary, unary.modifier, **kw)
+            else:
+                return self._generate_generic_unary_modifier(
+                    unary, OPERATORS[unary.modifier], **kw
+                )
+        else:
+            raise exc.CompileError(
+                "Unary expression has no operator or modifier"
+            )
+
+    def visit_truediv_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        if self.dialect.div_is_floordiv:
+            return (
+                self.process(binary.left, **kw)
+                + " / "
+                # TODO: would need a fast cast again here,
+                # unless we want to use an implicit cast like "+ 0.0"
+                + self.process(
+                    elements.Cast(
+                        binary.right,
+                        (
+                            binary.right.type
+                            if binary.right.type._type_affinity
+                            is sqltypes.Numeric
+                            else sqltypes.Numeric()
+                        ),
+                    ),
+                    **kw,
+                )
+            )
+        else:
+            return (
+                self.process(binary.left, **kw)
+                + " / "
+                + self.process(binary.right, **kw)
+            )
+
+    def visit_floordiv_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        if (
+            self.dialect.div_is_floordiv
+            and binary.right.type._type_affinity is sqltypes.Integer
+        ):
+            return (
+                self.process(binary.left, **kw)
+                + " / "
+                + self.process(binary.right, **kw)
+            )
+        else:
+            return "FLOOR(%s)" % (
+                self.process(binary.left, **kw)
+                + " / "
+                + self.process(binary.right, **kw)
+            )
+
+    def visit_is_true_unary_operator(self, element, operator, **kw):
+        if (
+            element._is_implicitly_boolean
+            or self.dialect.supports_native_boolean
+        ):
+            return self.process(element.element, **kw)
+        else:
+            return "%s = 1" % self.process(element.element, **kw)
+
+    def visit_is_false_unary_operator(self, element, operator, **kw):
+        if (
+            element._is_implicitly_boolean
+            or self.dialect.supports_native_boolean
+        ):
+            return "NOT %s" % self.process(element.element, **kw)
+        else:
+            return "%s = 0" % self.process(element.element, **kw)
+
+    def visit_not_match_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        return "NOT %s" % self.visit_binary(
+            binary, override_operator=operators.match_op
+        )
+
+    def visit_not_in_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        # The brackets are required in the NOT IN operation because the empty
+        # case is handled using the form "(col NOT IN (null) OR 1 = 1)".
+        # The presence of the OR makes the brackets required.
+        return "(%s)" % self._generate_generic_binary(
+            binary, OPERATORS[operator], **kw
+        )
+
+    def visit_empty_set_op_expr(self, type_, expand_op, **kw):
+        if expand_op is operators.not_in_op:
+            if len(type_) > 1:
+                return "(%s)) OR (1 = 1" % (
+                    ", ".join("NULL" for element in type_)
+                )
+            else:
+                return "NULL) OR (1 = 1"
+        elif expand_op is operators.in_op:
+            if len(type_) > 1:
+                return "(%s)) AND (1 != 1" % (
+                    ", ".join("NULL" for element in type_)
+                )
+            else:
+                return "NULL) AND (1 != 1"
+        else:
+            return self.visit_empty_set_expr(type_)
+
+    def visit_empty_set_expr(self, element_types, **kw):
+        raise NotImplementedError(
+            "Dialect '%s' does not support empty set expression."
+            % self.dialect.name
+        )
+
+    def _literal_execute_expanding_parameter_literal_binds(
+        self, parameter, values, bind_expression_template=None
+    ):
+        typ_dialect_impl = parameter.type._unwrapped_dialect_impl(self.dialect)
+
+        if not values:
+            # empty IN expression.  note we don't need to use
+            # bind_expression_template here because there are no
+            # expressions to render.
+
+            if typ_dialect_impl._is_tuple_type:
+                replacement_expression = (
+                    "VALUES " if self.dialect.tuple_in_values else ""
+                ) + self.visit_empty_set_op_expr(
+                    parameter.type.types, parameter.expand_op
+                )
+
+            else:
+                replacement_expression = self.visit_empty_set_op_expr(
+                    [parameter.type], parameter.expand_op
+                )
+
+        elif typ_dialect_impl._is_tuple_type or (
+            typ_dialect_impl._isnull
+            and isinstance(values[0], collections_abc.Sequence)
+            and not isinstance(values[0], (str, bytes))
+        ):
+            if typ_dialect_impl._has_bind_expression:
+                raise NotImplementedError(
+                    "bind_expression() on TupleType not supported with "
+                    "literal_binds"
+                )
+
+            replacement_expression = (
+                "VALUES " if self.dialect.tuple_in_values else ""
+            ) + ", ".join(
+                "(%s)"
+                % (
+                    ", ".join(
+                        self.render_literal_value(value, param_type)
+                        for value, param_type in zip(
+                            tuple_element, parameter.type.types
+                        )
+                    )
+                )
+                for i, tuple_element in enumerate(values)
+            )
+        else:
+            if bind_expression_template:
+                post_compile_pattern = self._post_compile_pattern
+                m = post_compile_pattern.search(bind_expression_template)
+                assert m and m.group(
+                    2
+                ), "unexpected format for expanding parameter"
+
+                tok = m.group(2).split("~~")
+                be_left, be_right = tok[1], tok[3]
+                replacement_expression = ", ".join(
+                    "%s%s%s"
+                    % (
+                        be_left,
+                        self.render_literal_value(value, parameter.type),
+                        be_right,
+                    )
+                    for value in values
+                )
+            else:
+                replacement_expression = ", ".join(
+                    self.render_literal_value(value, parameter.type)
+                    for value in values
+                )
+
+        return (), replacement_expression
+
+    def _literal_execute_expanding_parameter(self, name, parameter, values):
+        if parameter.literal_execute:
+            return self._literal_execute_expanding_parameter_literal_binds(
+                parameter, values
+            )
+
+        dialect = self.dialect
+        typ_dialect_impl = parameter.type._unwrapped_dialect_impl(dialect)
+
+        if self._numeric_binds:
+            bind_template = self.compilation_bindtemplate
+        else:
+            bind_template = self.bindtemplate
+
+        if (
+            self.dialect._bind_typing_render_casts
+            and typ_dialect_impl.render_bind_cast
+        ):
+
+            def _render_bindtemplate(name):
+                return self.render_bind_cast(
+                    parameter.type,
+                    typ_dialect_impl,
+                    bind_template % {"name": name},
+                )
+
+        else:
+
+            def _render_bindtemplate(name):
+                return bind_template % {"name": name}
+
+        if not values:
+            to_update = []
+            if typ_dialect_impl._is_tuple_type:
+                replacement_expression = self.visit_empty_set_op_expr(
+                    parameter.type.types, parameter.expand_op
+                )
+            else:
+                replacement_expression = self.visit_empty_set_op_expr(
+                    [parameter.type], parameter.expand_op
+                )
+
+        elif typ_dialect_impl._is_tuple_type or (
+            typ_dialect_impl._isnull
+            and isinstance(values[0], collections_abc.Sequence)
+            and not isinstance(values[0], (str, bytes))
+        ):
+            assert not typ_dialect_impl._is_array
+            to_update = [
+                ("%s_%s_%s" % (name, i, j), value)
+                for i, tuple_element in enumerate(values, 1)
+                for j, value in enumerate(tuple_element, 1)
+            ]
+
+            replacement_expression = (
+                "VALUES " if dialect.tuple_in_values else ""
+            ) + ", ".join(
+                "(%s)"
+                % (
+                    ", ".join(
+                        _render_bindtemplate(
+                            to_update[i * len(tuple_element) + j][0]
+                        )
+                        for j, value in enumerate(tuple_element)
+                    )
+                )
+                for i, tuple_element in enumerate(values)
+            )
+        else:
+            to_update = [
+                ("%s_%s" % (name, i), value)
+                for i, value in enumerate(values, 1)
+            ]
+            replacement_expression = ", ".join(
+                _render_bindtemplate(key) for key, value in to_update
+            )
+
+        return to_update, replacement_expression
+
+    def visit_binary(
+        self,
+        binary,
+        override_operator=None,
+        eager_grouping=False,
+        from_linter=None,
+        lateral_from_linter=None,
+        **kw,
+    ):
+        if from_linter and operators.is_comparison(binary.operator):
+            if lateral_from_linter is not None:
+                enclosing_lateral = kw["enclosing_lateral"]
+                lateral_from_linter.edges.update(
+                    itertools.product(
+                        _de_clone(
+                            binary.left._from_objects + [enclosing_lateral]
+                        ),
+                        _de_clone(
+                            binary.right._from_objects + [enclosing_lateral]
+                        ),
+                    )
+                )
+            else:
+                from_linter.edges.update(
+                    itertools.product(
+                        _de_clone(binary.left._from_objects),
+                        _de_clone(binary.right._from_objects),
+                    )
+                )
+
+        # don't allow "? = ?" to render
+        if (
+            self.ansi_bind_rules
+            and isinstance(binary.left, elements.BindParameter)
+            and isinstance(binary.right, elements.BindParameter)
+        ):
+            kw["literal_execute"] = True
+
+        operator_ = override_operator or binary.operator
+        disp = self._get_operator_dispatch(operator_, "binary", None)
+        if disp:
+            return disp(binary, operator_, **kw)
+        else:
+            try:
+                opstring = OPERATORS[operator_]
+            except KeyError as err:
+                raise exc.UnsupportedCompilationError(self, operator_) from err
+            else:
+                return self._generate_generic_binary(
+                    binary,
+                    opstring,
+                    from_linter=from_linter,
+                    lateral_from_linter=lateral_from_linter,
+                    **kw,
+                )
+
+    def visit_function_as_comparison_op_binary(self, element, operator, **kw):
+        return self.process(element.sql_function, **kw)
+
+    def visit_mod_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        if self.preparer._double_percents:
+            return (
+                self.process(binary.left, **kw)
+                + " %% "
+                + self.process(binary.right, **kw)
+            )
+        else:
+            return (
+                self.process(binary.left, **kw)
+                + " % "
+                + self.process(binary.right, **kw)
+            )
+
+    def visit_custom_op_binary(self, element, operator, **kw):
+        kw["eager_grouping"] = operator.eager_grouping
+        return self._generate_generic_binary(
+            element,
+            " " + self.escape_literal_column(operator.opstring) + " ",
+            **kw,
+        )
+
+    def visit_custom_op_unary_operator(self, element, operator, **kw):
+        return self._generate_generic_unary_operator(
+            element, self.escape_literal_column(operator.opstring) + " ", **kw
+        )
+
+    def visit_custom_op_unary_modifier(self, element, operator, **kw):
+        return self._generate_generic_unary_modifier(
+            element, " " + self.escape_literal_column(operator.opstring), **kw
+        )
+
+    def _generate_generic_binary(
+        self, binary, opstring, eager_grouping=False, **kw
+    ):
+        _in_operator_expression = kw.get("_in_operator_expression", False)
+
+        kw["_in_operator_expression"] = True
+        kw["_binary_op"] = binary.operator
+        text = (
+            binary.left._compiler_dispatch(
+                self, eager_grouping=eager_grouping, **kw
+            )
+            + opstring
+            + binary.right._compiler_dispatch(
+                self, eager_grouping=eager_grouping, **kw
+            )
+        )
+
+        if _in_operator_expression and eager_grouping:
+            text = "(%s)" % text
+        return text
+
+    def _generate_generic_unary_operator(self, unary, opstring, **kw):
+        return opstring + unary.element._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw)
+
+    def _generate_generic_unary_modifier(self, unary, opstring, **kw):
+        return unary.element._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw) + opstring
+
+    @util.memoized_property
+    def _like_percent_literal(self):
+        return elements.literal_column("'%'", type_=sqltypes.STRINGTYPE)
+
+    def visit_ilike_case_insensitive_operand(self, element, **kw):
+        return f"lower({element.element._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw)})"
+
+    def visit_contains_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        binary = binary._clone()
+        percent = self._like_percent_literal
+        binary.right = percent.concat(binary.right).concat(percent)
+        return self.visit_like_op_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_not_contains_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        binary = binary._clone()
+        percent = self._like_percent_literal
+        binary.right = percent.concat(binary.right).concat(percent)
+        return self.visit_not_like_op_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_icontains_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        binary = binary._clone()
+        percent = self._like_percent_literal
+        binary.left = ilike_case_insensitive(binary.left)
+        binary.right = percent.concat(
+            ilike_case_insensitive(binary.right)
+        ).concat(percent)
+        return self.visit_ilike_op_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_not_icontains_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        binary = binary._clone()
+        percent = self._like_percent_literal
+        binary.left = ilike_case_insensitive(binary.left)
+        binary.right = percent.concat(
+            ilike_case_insensitive(binary.right)
+        ).concat(percent)
+        return self.visit_not_ilike_op_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_startswith_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        binary = binary._clone()
+        percent = self._like_percent_literal
+        binary.right = percent._rconcat(binary.right)
+        return self.visit_like_op_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_not_startswith_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        binary = binary._clone()
+        percent = self._like_percent_literal
+        binary.right = percent._rconcat(binary.right)
+        return self.visit_not_like_op_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_istartswith_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        binary = binary._clone()
+        percent = self._like_percent_literal
+        binary.left = ilike_case_insensitive(binary.left)
+        binary.right = percent._rconcat(ilike_case_insensitive(binary.right))
+        return self.visit_ilike_op_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_not_istartswith_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        binary = binary._clone()
+        percent = self._like_percent_literal
+        binary.left = ilike_case_insensitive(binary.left)
+        binary.right = percent._rconcat(ilike_case_insensitive(binary.right))
+        return self.visit_not_ilike_op_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_endswith_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        binary = binary._clone()
+        percent = self._like_percent_literal
+        binary.right = percent.concat(binary.right)
+        return self.visit_like_op_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_not_endswith_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        binary = binary._clone()
+        percent = self._like_percent_literal
+        binary.right = percent.concat(binary.right)
+        return self.visit_not_like_op_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_iendswith_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        binary = binary._clone()
+        percent = self._like_percent_literal
+        binary.left = ilike_case_insensitive(binary.left)
+        binary.right = percent.concat(ilike_case_insensitive(binary.right))
+        return self.visit_ilike_op_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_not_iendswith_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        binary = binary._clone()
+        percent = self._like_percent_literal
+        binary.left = ilike_case_insensitive(binary.left)
+        binary.right = percent.concat(ilike_case_insensitive(binary.right))
+        return self.visit_not_ilike_op_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_like_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        escape = binary.modifiers.get("escape", None)
+
+        return "%s LIKE %s" % (
+            binary.left._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw),
+            binary.right._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw),
+        ) + (
+            " ESCAPE " + self.render_literal_value(escape, sqltypes.STRINGTYPE)
+            if escape is not None
+            else ""
+        )
+
+    def visit_not_like_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        escape = binary.modifiers.get("escape", None)
+        return "%s NOT LIKE %s" % (
+            binary.left._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw),
+            binary.right._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw),
+        ) + (
+            " ESCAPE " + self.render_literal_value(escape, sqltypes.STRINGTYPE)
+            if escape is not None
+            else ""
+        )
+
+    def visit_ilike_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        if operator is operators.ilike_op:
+            binary = binary._clone()
+            binary.left = ilike_case_insensitive(binary.left)
+            binary.right = ilike_case_insensitive(binary.right)
+        # else we assume ilower() has been applied
+
+        return self.visit_like_op_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_not_ilike_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        if operator is operators.not_ilike_op:
+            binary = binary._clone()
+            binary.left = ilike_case_insensitive(binary.left)
+            binary.right = ilike_case_insensitive(binary.right)
+        # else we assume ilower() has been applied
+
+        return self.visit_not_like_op_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_between_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        symmetric = binary.modifiers.get("symmetric", False)
+        return self._generate_generic_binary(
+            binary, " BETWEEN SYMMETRIC " if symmetric else " BETWEEN ", **kw
+        )
+
+    def visit_not_between_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        symmetric = binary.modifiers.get("symmetric", False)
+        return self._generate_generic_binary(
+            binary,
+            " NOT BETWEEN SYMMETRIC " if symmetric else " NOT BETWEEN ",
+            **kw,
+        )
+
+    def visit_regexp_match_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        raise exc.CompileError(
+            "%s dialect does not support regular expressions"
+            % self.dialect.name
+        )
+
+    def visit_not_regexp_match_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        raise exc.CompileError(
+            "%s dialect does not support regular expressions"
+            % self.dialect.name
+        )
+
+    def visit_regexp_replace_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        raise exc.CompileError(
+            "%s dialect does not support regular expression replacements"
+            % self.dialect.name
+        )
+
+    def visit_bindparam(
+        self,
+        bindparam,
+        within_columns_clause=False,
+        literal_binds=False,
+        skip_bind_expression=False,
+        literal_execute=False,
+        render_postcompile=False,
+        **kwargs,
+    ):
+
+        if not skip_bind_expression:
+            impl = bindparam.type.dialect_impl(self.dialect)
+            if impl._has_bind_expression:
+                bind_expression = impl.bind_expression(bindparam)
+                wrapped = self.process(
+                    bind_expression,
+                    skip_bind_expression=True,
+                    within_columns_clause=within_columns_clause,
+                    literal_binds=literal_binds and not bindparam.expanding,
+                    literal_execute=literal_execute,
+                    render_postcompile=render_postcompile,
+                    **kwargs,
+                )
+                if bindparam.expanding:
+                    # for postcompile w/ expanding, move the "wrapped" part
+                    # of this into the inside
+
+                    m = re.match(
+                        r"^(.*)\(__\[POSTCOMPILE_(\S+?)\]\)(.*)$", wrapped
+                    )
+                    assert m, "unexpected format for expanding parameter"
+                    wrapped = "(__[POSTCOMPILE_%s~~%s~~REPL~~%s~~])" % (
+                        m.group(2),
+                        m.group(1),
+                        m.group(3),
+                    )
+
+                    if literal_binds:
+                        ret = self.render_literal_bindparam(
+                            bindparam,
+                            within_columns_clause=True,
+                            bind_expression_template=wrapped,
+                            **kwargs,
+                        )
+                        return "(%s)" % ret
+
+                return wrapped
+
+        if not literal_binds:
+            literal_execute = (
+                literal_execute
+                or bindparam.literal_execute
+                or (within_columns_clause and self.ansi_bind_rules)
+            )
+            post_compile = literal_execute or bindparam.expanding
+        else:
+            post_compile = False
+
+        if literal_binds:
+            ret = self.render_literal_bindparam(
+                bindparam, within_columns_clause=True, **kwargs
+            )
+            if bindparam.expanding:
+                ret = "(%s)" % ret
+            return ret
+
+        name = self._truncate_bindparam(bindparam)
+
+        if name in self.binds:
+            existing = self.binds[name]
+            if existing is not bindparam:
+                if (
+                    (existing.unique or bindparam.unique)
+                    and not existing.proxy_set.intersection(
+                        bindparam.proxy_set
+                    )
+                    and not existing._cloned_set.intersection(
+                        bindparam._cloned_set
+                    )
+                ):
+                    raise exc.CompileError(
+                        "Bind parameter '%s' conflicts with "
+                        "unique bind parameter of the same name" % name
+                    )
+                elif existing.expanding != bindparam.expanding:
+                    raise exc.CompileError(
+                        "Can't reuse bound parameter name '%s' in both "
+                        "'expanding' (e.g. within an IN expression) and "
+                        "non-expanding contexts.  If this parameter is to "
+                        "receive a list/array value, set 'expanding=True' on "
+                        "it for expressions that aren't IN, otherwise use "
+                        "a different parameter name." % (name,)
+                    )
+                elif existing._is_crud or bindparam._is_crud:
+                    if existing._is_crud and bindparam._is_crud:
+                        # TODO: this condition is not well understood.
+                        # see tests in test/sql/test_update.py
+                        raise exc.CompileError(
+                            "Encountered unsupported case when compiling an "
+                            "INSERT or UPDATE statement.  If this is a "
+                            "multi-table "
+                            "UPDATE statement, please provide string-named "
+                            "arguments to the "
+                            "values() method with distinct names; support for "
+                            "multi-table UPDATE statements that "
+                            "target multiple tables for UPDATE is very "
+                            "limited",
+                        )
+                    else:
+                        raise exc.CompileError(
+                            f"bindparam() name '{bindparam.key}' is reserved "
+                            "for automatic usage in the VALUES or SET "
+                            "clause of this "
+                            "insert/update statement.   Please use a "
+                            "name other than column name when using "
+                            "bindparam() "
+                            "with insert() or update() (for example, "
+                            f"'b_{bindparam.key}')."
+                        )
+
+        self.binds[bindparam.key] = self.binds[name] = bindparam
+
+        # if we are given a cache key that we're going to match against,
+        # relate the bindparam here to one that is most likely present
+        # in the "extracted params" portion of the cache key.  this is used
+        # to set up a positional mapping that is used to determine the
+        # correct parameters for a subsequent use of this compiled with
+        # a different set of parameter values.   here, we accommodate for
+        # parameters that may have been cloned both before and after the cache
+        # key was been generated.
+        ckbm_tuple = self._cache_key_bind_match
+
+        if ckbm_tuple:
+            ckbm, cksm = ckbm_tuple
+            for bp in bindparam._cloned_set:
+                if bp.key in cksm:
+                    cb = cksm[bp.key]
+                    ckbm[cb].append(bindparam)
+
+        if bindparam.isoutparam:
+            self.has_out_parameters = True
+
+        if post_compile:
+            if render_postcompile:
+                self._render_postcompile = True
+
+            if literal_execute:
+                self.literal_execute_params |= {bindparam}
+            else:
+                self.post_compile_params |= {bindparam}
+
+        ret = self.bindparam_string(
+            name,
+            post_compile=post_compile,
+            expanding=bindparam.expanding,
+            bindparam_type=bindparam.type,
+            **kwargs,
+        )
+
+        if bindparam.expanding:
+            ret = "(%s)" % ret
+
+        return ret
+
+    def render_bind_cast(self, type_, dbapi_type, sqltext):
+        raise NotImplementedError()
+
+    def render_literal_bindparam(
+        self,
+        bindparam,
+        render_literal_value=NO_ARG,
+        bind_expression_template=None,
+        **kw,
+    ):
+        if render_literal_value is not NO_ARG:
+            value = render_literal_value
+        else:
+            if bindparam.value is None and bindparam.callable is None:
+                op = kw.get("_binary_op", None)
+                if op and op not in (operators.is_, operators.is_not):
+                    util.warn_limited(
+                        "Bound parameter '%s' rendering literal NULL in a SQL "
+                        "expression; comparisons to NULL should not use "
+                        "operators outside of 'is' or 'is not'",
+                        (bindparam.key,),
+                    )
+                return self.process(sqltypes.NULLTYPE, **kw)
+            value = bindparam.effective_value
+
+        if bindparam.expanding:
+            leep = self._literal_execute_expanding_parameter_literal_binds
+            to_update, replacement_expr = leep(
+                bindparam,
+                value,
+                bind_expression_template=bind_expression_template,
+            )
+            return replacement_expr
+        else:
+            return self.render_literal_value(value, bindparam.type)
+
+    def render_literal_value(self, value, type_):
+        """Render the value of a bind parameter as a quoted literal.
+
+        This is used for statement sections that do not accept bind parameters
+        on the target driver/database.
+
+        This should be implemented by subclasses using the quoting services
+        of the DBAPI.
+
+        """
+
+        if value is None and not type_.should_evaluate_none:
+            # issue #10535 - handle NULL in the compiler without placing
+            # this onto each type, except for "evaluate None" types
+            # (e.g. JSON)
+            return self.process(elements.Null._instance())
+
+        processor = type_._cached_literal_processor(self.dialect)
+        if processor:
+            try:
+                return processor(value)
+            except Exception as e:
+                raise exc.CompileError(
+                    f"Could not render literal value "
+                    f'"{sql_util._repr_single_value(value)}" '
+                    f"with datatype "
+                    f"{type_}; see parent stack trace for "
+                    "more detail."
+                ) from e
+
+        else:
+            raise exc.CompileError(
+                f"No literal value renderer is available for literal value "
+                f'"{sql_util._repr_single_value(value)}" '
+                f"with datatype {type_}"
+            )
+
+    def _truncate_bindparam(self, bindparam):
+        if bindparam in self.bind_names:
+            return self.bind_names[bindparam]
+
+        bind_name = bindparam.key
+        if isinstance(bind_name, elements._truncated_label):
+            bind_name = self._truncated_identifier("bindparam", bind_name)
+
+        # add to bind_names for translation
+        self.bind_names[bindparam] = bind_name
+
+        return bind_name
+
+    def _truncated_identifier(
+        self, ident_class: str, name: _truncated_label
+    ) -> str:
+        if (ident_class, name) in self.truncated_names:
+            return self.truncated_names[(ident_class, name)]
+
+        anonname = name.apply_map(self.anon_map)
+
+        if len(anonname) > self.label_length - 6:
+            counter = self._truncated_counters.get(ident_class, 1)
+            truncname = (
+                anonname[0 : max(self.label_length - 6, 0)]
+                + "_"
+                + hex(counter)[2:]
+            )
+            self._truncated_counters[ident_class] = counter + 1
+        else:
+            truncname = anonname
+        self.truncated_names[(ident_class, name)] = truncname
+        return truncname
+
+    def _anonymize(self, name: str) -> str:
+        return name % self.anon_map
+
+    def bindparam_string(
+        self,
+        name: str,
+        post_compile: bool = False,
+        expanding: bool = False,
+        escaped_from: Optional[str] = None,
+        bindparam_type: Optional[TypeEngine[Any]] = None,
+        accumulate_bind_names: Optional[Set[str]] = None,
+        visited_bindparam: Optional[List[str]] = None,
+        **kw: Any,
+    ) -> str:
+        # TODO: accumulate_bind_names is passed by crud.py to gather
+        # names on a per-value basis, visited_bindparam is passed by
+        # visit_insert() to collect all parameters in the statement.
+        # see if this gathering can be simplified somehow
+        if accumulate_bind_names is not None:
+            accumulate_bind_names.add(name)
+        if visited_bindparam is not None:
+            visited_bindparam.append(name)
+
+        if not escaped_from:
+            if self._bind_translate_re.search(name):
+                # not quite the translate use case as we want to
+                # also get a quick boolean if we even found
+                # unusual characters in the name
+                new_name = self._bind_translate_re.sub(
+                    lambda m: self._bind_translate_chars[m.group(0)],
+                    name,
+                )
+                escaped_from = name
+                name = new_name
+
+        if escaped_from:
+            self.escaped_bind_names = self.escaped_bind_names.union(
+                {escaped_from: name}
+            )
+        if post_compile:
+            ret = "__[POSTCOMPILE_%s]" % name
+            if expanding:
+                # for expanding, bound parameters or literal values will be
+                # rendered per item
+                return ret
+
+            # otherwise, for non-expanding "literal execute", apply
+            # bind casts as determined by the datatype
+            if bindparam_type is not None:
+                type_impl = bindparam_type._unwrapped_dialect_impl(
+                    self.dialect
+                )
+                if type_impl.render_literal_cast:
+                    ret = self.render_bind_cast(bindparam_type, type_impl, ret)
+            return ret
+        elif self.state is CompilerState.COMPILING:
+            ret = self.compilation_bindtemplate % {"name": name}
+        else:
+            ret = self.bindtemplate % {"name": name}
+
+        if (
+            bindparam_type is not None
+            and self.dialect._bind_typing_render_casts
+        ):
+            type_impl = bindparam_type._unwrapped_dialect_impl(self.dialect)
+            if type_impl.render_bind_cast:
+                ret = self.render_bind_cast(bindparam_type, type_impl, ret)
+
+        return ret
+
+    def _dispatch_independent_ctes(self, stmt, kw):
+        local_kw = kw.copy()
+        local_kw.pop("cte_opts", None)
+        for cte, opt in zip(
+            stmt._independent_ctes, stmt._independent_ctes_opts
+        ):
+            cte._compiler_dispatch(self, cte_opts=opt, **local_kw)
+
+    def visit_cte(
+        self,
+        cte: CTE,
+        asfrom: bool = False,
+        ashint: bool = False,
+        fromhints: Optional[_FromHintsType] = None,
+        visiting_cte: Optional[CTE] = None,
+        from_linter: Optional[FromLinter] = None,
+        cte_opts: selectable._CTEOpts = selectable._CTEOpts(False),
+        **kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> Optional[str]:
+        self_ctes = self._init_cte_state()
+        assert self_ctes is self.ctes
+
+        kwargs["visiting_cte"] = cte
+
+        cte_name = cte.name
+
+        if isinstance(cte_name, elements._truncated_label):
+            cte_name = self._truncated_identifier("alias", cte_name)
+
+        is_new_cte = True
+        embedded_in_current_named_cte = False
+
+        _reference_cte = cte._get_reference_cte()
+
+        nesting = cte.nesting or cte_opts.nesting
+
+        # check for CTE already encountered
+        if _reference_cte in self.level_name_by_cte:
+            cte_level, _, existing_cte_opts = self.level_name_by_cte[
+                _reference_cte
+            ]
+            assert _ == cte_name
+
+            cte_level_name = (cte_level, cte_name)
+            existing_cte = self.ctes_by_level_name[cte_level_name]
+
+            # check if we are receiving it here with a specific
+            # "nest_here" location; if so, move it to this location
+
+            if cte_opts.nesting:
+                if existing_cte_opts.nesting:
+                    raise exc.CompileError(
+                        "CTE is stated as 'nest_here' in "
+                        "more than one location"
+                    )
+
+                old_level_name = (cte_level, cte_name)
+                cte_level = len(self.stack) if nesting else 1
+                cte_level_name = new_level_name = (cte_level, cte_name)
+
+                del self.ctes_by_level_name[old_level_name]
+                self.ctes_by_level_name[new_level_name] = existing_cte
+                self.level_name_by_cte[_reference_cte] = new_level_name + (
+                    cte_opts,
+                )
+
+        else:
+            cte_level = len(self.stack) if nesting else 1
+            cte_level_name = (cte_level, cte_name)
+
+            if cte_level_name in self.ctes_by_level_name:
+                existing_cte = self.ctes_by_level_name[cte_level_name]
+            else:
+                existing_cte = None
+
+        if existing_cte is not None:
+            embedded_in_current_named_cte = visiting_cte is existing_cte
+
+            # we've generated a same-named CTE that we are enclosed in,
+            # or this is the same CTE.  just return the name.
+            if cte is existing_cte._restates or cte is existing_cte:
+                is_new_cte = False
+            elif existing_cte is cte._restates:
+                # we've generated a same-named CTE that is
+                # enclosed in us - we take precedence, so
+                # discard the text for the "inner".
+                del self_ctes[existing_cte]
+
+                existing_cte_reference_cte = existing_cte._get_reference_cte()
+
+                assert existing_cte_reference_cte is _reference_cte
+                assert existing_cte_reference_cte is existing_cte
+
+                del self.level_name_by_cte[existing_cte_reference_cte]
+            else:
+                # if the two CTEs are deep-copy identical, consider them
+                # the same, **if** they are clones, that is, they came from
+                # the ORM or other visit method
+                if (
+                    cte._is_clone_of is not None
+                    or existing_cte._is_clone_of is not None
+                ) and cte.compare(existing_cte):
+                    is_new_cte = False
+                else:
+                    raise exc.CompileError(
+                        "Multiple, unrelated CTEs found with "
+                        "the same name: %r" % cte_name
+                    )
+
+        if not asfrom and not is_new_cte:
+            return None
+
+        if cte._cte_alias is not None:
+            pre_alias_cte = cte._cte_alias
+            cte_pre_alias_name = cte._cte_alias.name
+            if isinstance(cte_pre_alias_name, elements._truncated_label):
+                cte_pre_alias_name = self._truncated_identifier(
+                    "alias", cte_pre_alias_name
+                )
+        else:
+            pre_alias_cte = cte
+            cte_pre_alias_name = None
+
+        if is_new_cte:
+            self.ctes_by_level_name[cte_level_name] = cte
+            self.level_name_by_cte[_reference_cte] = cte_level_name + (
+                cte_opts,
+            )
+
+            if pre_alias_cte not in self.ctes:
+                self.visit_cte(pre_alias_cte, **kwargs)
+
+            if not cte_pre_alias_name and cte not in self_ctes:
+                if cte.recursive:
+                    self.ctes_recursive = True
+                text = self.preparer.format_alias(cte, cte_name)
+                if cte.recursive:
+                    col_source = cte.element
+
+                    # TODO: can we get at the .columns_plus_names collection
+                    # that is already (or will be?) generated for the SELECT
+                    # rather than calling twice?
+                    recur_cols = [
+                        # TODO: proxy_name is not technically safe,
+                        # see test_cte->
+                        # test_with_recursive_no_name_currently_buggy.  not
+                        # clear what should be done with such a case
+                        fallback_label_name or proxy_name
+                        for (
+                            _,
+                            proxy_name,
+                            fallback_label_name,
+                            c,
+                            repeated,
+                        ) in (col_source._generate_columns_plus_names(True))
+                        if not repeated
+                    ]
+
+                    text += "(%s)" % (
+                        ", ".join(
+                            self.preparer.format_label_name(
+                                ident, anon_map=self.anon_map
+                            )
+                            for ident in recur_cols
+                        )
+                    )
+
+                assert kwargs.get("subquery", False) is False
+
+                if not self.stack:
+                    # toplevel, this is a stringify of the
+                    # cte directly.  just compile the inner
+                    # the way alias() does.
+                    return cte.element._compiler_dispatch(
+                        self, asfrom=asfrom, **kwargs
+                    )
+                else:
+                    prefixes = self._generate_prefixes(
+                        cte, cte._prefixes, **kwargs
+                    )
+                    inner = cte.element._compiler_dispatch(
+                        self, asfrom=True, **kwargs
+                    )
+
+                    text += " AS %s\n(%s)" % (prefixes, inner)
+
+                if cte._suffixes:
+                    text += " " + self._generate_prefixes(
+                        cte, cte._suffixes, **kwargs
+                    )
+
+                self_ctes[cte] = text
+
+        if asfrom:
+            if from_linter:
+                from_linter.froms[cte._de_clone()] = cte_name
+
+            if not is_new_cte and embedded_in_current_named_cte:
+                return self.preparer.format_alias(cte, cte_name)
+
+            if cte_pre_alias_name:
+                text = self.preparer.format_alias(cte, cte_pre_alias_name)
+                if self.preparer._requires_quotes(cte_name):
+                    cte_name = self.preparer.quote(cte_name)
+                text += self.get_render_as_alias_suffix(cte_name)
+                return text
+            else:
+                return self.preparer.format_alias(cte, cte_name)
+
+        return None
+
+    def visit_table_valued_alias(self, element, **kw):
+        if element.joins_implicitly:
+            kw["from_linter"] = None
+        if element._is_lateral:
+            return self.visit_lateral(element, **kw)
+        else:
+            return self.visit_alias(element, **kw)
+
+    def visit_table_valued_column(self, element, **kw):
+        return self.visit_column(element, **kw)
+
+    def visit_alias(
+        self,
+        alias,
+        asfrom=False,
+        ashint=False,
+        iscrud=False,
+        fromhints=None,
+        subquery=False,
+        lateral=False,
+        enclosing_alias=None,
+        from_linter=None,
+        **kwargs,
+    ):
+        if lateral:
+            if "enclosing_lateral" not in kwargs:
+                # if lateral is set and enclosing_lateral is not
+                # present, we assume we are being called directly
+                # from visit_lateral() and we need to set enclosing_lateral.
+                assert alias._is_lateral
+                kwargs["enclosing_lateral"] = alias
+
+            # for lateral objects, we track a second from_linter that is...
+            # lateral!  to the level above us.
+            if (
+                from_linter
+                and "lateral_from_linter" not in kwargs
+                and "enclosing_lateral" in kwargs
+            ):
+                kwargs["lateral_from_linter"] = from_linter
+
+        if enclosing_alias is not None and enclosing_alias.element is alias:
+            inner = alias.element._compiler_dispatch(
+                self,
+                asfrom=asfrom,
+                ashint=ashint,
+                iscrud=iscrud,
+                fromhints=fromhints,
+                lateral=lateral,
+                enclosing_alias=alias,
+                **kwargs,
+            )
+            if subquery and (asfrom or lateral):
+                inner = "(%s)" % (inner,)
+            return inner
+        else:
+            enclosing_alias = kwargs["enclosing_alias"] = alias
+
+        if asfrom or ashint:
+            if isinstance(alias.name, elements._truncated_label):
+                alias_name = self._truncated_identifier("alias", alias.name)
+            else:
+                alias_name = alias.name
+
+        if ashint:
+            return self.preparer.format_alias(alias, alias_name)
+        elif asfrom:
+            if from_linter:
+                from_linter.froms[alias._de_clone()] = alias_name
+
+            inner = alias.element._compiler_dispatch(
+                self, asfrom=True, lateral=lateral, **kwargs
+            )
+            if subquery:
+                inner = "(%s)" % (inner,)
+
+            ret = inner + self.get_render_as_alias_suffix(
+                self.preparer.format_alias(alias, alias_name)
+            )
+
+            if alias._supports_derived_columns and alias._render_derived:
+                ret += "(%s)" % (
+                    ", ".join(
+                        "%s%s"
+                        % (
+                            self.preparer.quote(col.name),
+                            (
+                                " %s"
+                                % self.dialect.type_compiler_instance.process(
+                                    col.type, **kwargs
+                                )
+                                if alias._render_derived_w_types
+                                else ""
+                            ),
+                        )
+                        for col in alias.c
+                    )
+                )
+
+            if fromhints and alias in fromhints:
+                ret = self.format_from_hint_text(
+                    ret, alias, fromhints[alias], iscrud
+                )
+
+            return ret
+        else:
+            # note we cancel the "subquery" flag here as well
+            return alias.element._compiler_dispatch(
+                self, lateral=lateral, **kwargs
+            )
+
+    def visit_subquery(self, subquery, **kw):
+        kw["subquery"] = True
+        return self.visit_alias(subquery, **kw)
+
+    def visit_lateral(self, lateral_, **kw):
+        kw["lateral"] = True
+        return "LATERAL %s" % self.visit_alias(lateral_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_tablesample(self, tablesample, asfrom=False, **kw):
+        text = "%s TABLESAMPLE %s" % (
+            self.visit_alias(tablesample, asfrom=True, **kw),
+            tablesample._get_method()._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw),
+        )
+
+        if tablesample.seed is not None:
+            text += " REPEATABLE (%s)" % (
+                tablesample.seed._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw)
+            )
+
+        return text
+
+    def _render_values(self, element, **kw):
+        kw.setdefault("literal_binds", element.literal_binds)
+        tuples = ", ".join(
+            self.process(
+                elements.Tuple(
+                    types=element._column_types, *elem
+                ).self_group(),
+                **kw,
+            )
+            for chunk in element._data
+            for elem in chunk
+        )
+        return f"VALUES {tuples}"
+
+    def visit_values(self, element, asfrom=False, from_linter=None, **kw):
+        v = self._render_values(element, **kw)
+
+        if element._unnamed:
+            name = None
+        elif isinstance(element.name, elements._truncated_label):
+            name = self._truncated_identifier("values", element.name)
+        else:
+            name = element.name
+
+        if element._is_lateral:
+            lateral = "LATERAL "
+        else:
+            lateral = ""
+
+        if asfrom:
+            if from_linter:
+                from_linter.froms[element._de_clone()] = (
+                    name if name is not None else "(unnamed VALUES element)"
+                )
+
+            if name:
+                kw["include_table"] = False
+                v = "%s(%s)%s (%s)" % (
+                    lateral,
+                    v,
+                    self.get_render_as_alias_suffix(self.preparer.quote(name)),
+                    (
+                        ", ".join(
+                            c._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw)
+                            for c in element.columns
+                        )
+                    ),
+                )
+            else:
+                v = "%s(%s)" % (lateral, v)
+        return v
+
+    def visit_scalar_values(self, element, **kw):
+        return f"({self._render_values(element, **kw)})"
+
+    def get_render_as_alias_suffix(self, alias_name_text):
+        return " AS " + alias_name_text
+
+    def _add_to_result_map(
+        self,
+        keyname: str,
+        name: str,
+        objects: Tuple[Any, ...],
+        type_: TypeEngine[Any],
+    ) -> None:
+        if keyname is None or keyname == "*":
+            self._ordered_columns = False
+            self._ad_hoc_textual = True
+        if type_._is_tuple_type:
+            raise exc.CompileError(
+                "Most backends don't support SELECTing "
+                "from a tuple() object.  If this is an ORM query, "
+                "consider using the Bundle object."
+            )
+        self._result_columns.append(
+            ResultColumnsEntry(keyname, name, objects, type_)
+        )
+
+    def _label_returning_column(
+        self, stmt, column, populate_result_map, column_clause_args=None, **kw
+    ):
+        """Render a column with necessary labels inside of a RETURNING clause.
+
+        This method is provided for individual dialects in place of calling
+        the _label_select_column method directly, so that the two use cases
+        of RETURNING vs. SELECT can be disambiguated going forward.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 1.4.21
+
+        """
+        return self._label_select_column(
+            None,
+            column,
+            populate_result_map,
+            False,
+            {} if column_clause_args is None else column_clause_args,
+            **kw,
+        )
+
+    def _label_select_column(
+        self,
+        select,
+        column,
+        populate_result_map,
+        asfrom,
+        column_clause_args,
+        name=None,
+        proxy_name=None,
+        fallback_label_name=None,
+        within_columns_clause=True,
+        column_is_repeated=False,
+        need_column_expressions=False,
+        include_table=True,
+    ):
+        """produce labeled columns present in a select()."""
+        impl = column.type.dialect_impl(self.dialect)
+
+        if impl._has_column_expression and (
+            need_column_expressions or populate_result_map
+        ):
+            col_expr = impl.column_expression(column)
+        else:
+            col_expr = column
+
+        if populate_result_map:
+            # pass an "add_to_result_map" callable into the compilation
+            # of embedded columns.  this collects information about the
+            # column as it will be fetched in the result and is coordinated
+            # with cursor.description when the query is executed.
+            add_to_result_map = self._add_to_result_map
+
+            # if the SELECT statement told us this column is a repeat,
+            # wrap the callable with one that prevents the addition of the
+            # targets
+            if column_is_repeated:
+                _add_to_result_map = add_to_result_map
+
+                def add_to_result_map(keyname, name, objects, type_):
+                    _add_to_result_map(keyname, name, (), type_)
+
+            # if we redefined col_expr for type expressions, wrap the
+            # callable with one that adds the original column to the targets
+            elif col_expr is not column:
+                _add_to_result_map = add_to_result_map
+
+                def add_to_result_map(keyname, name, objects, type_):
+                    _add_to_result_map(
+                        keyname, name, (column,) + objects, type_
+                    )
+
+        else:
+            add_to_result_map = None
+
+        # this method is used by some of the dialects for RETURNING,
+        # which has different inputs.  _label_returning_column was added
+        # as the better target for this now however for 1.4 we will keep
+        # _label_select_column directly compatible with this use case.
+        # these assertions right now set up the current expected inputs
+        assert within_columns_clause, (
+            "_label_select_column is only relevant within "
+            "the columns clause of a SELECT or RETURNING"
+        )
+        if isinstance(column, elements.Label):
+            if col_expr is not column:
+                result_expr = _CompileLabel(
+                    col_expr, column.name, alt_names=(column.element,)
+                )
+            else:
+                result_expr = col_expr
+
+        elif name:
+            # here, _columns_plus_names has determined there's an explicit
+            # label name we need to use.  this is the default for
+            # tablenames_plus_columnnames as well as when columns are being
+            # deduplicated on name
+
+            assert (
+                proxy_name is not None
+            ), "proxy_name is required if 'name' is passed"
+
+            result_expr = _CompileLabel(
+                col_expr,
+                name,
+                alt_names=(
+                    proxy_name,
+                    # this is a hack to allow legacy result column lookups
+                    # to work as they did before; this goes away in 2.0.
+                    # TODO: this only seems to be tested indirectly
+                    # via test/orm/test_deprecations.py.   should be a
+                    # resultset test for this
+                    column._tq_label,
+                ),
+            )
+        else:
+            # determine here whether this column should be rendered in
+            # a labelled context or not, as we were given no required label
+            # name from the caller. Here we apply heuristics based on the kind
+            # of SQL expression involved.
+
+            if col_expr is not column:
+                # type-specific expression wrapping the given column,
+                # so we render a label
+                render_with_label = True
+            elif isinstance(column, elements.ColumnClause):
+                # table-bound column, we render its name as a label if we are
+                # inside of a subquery only
+                render_with_label = (
+                    asfrom
+                    and not column.is_literal
+                    and column.table is not None
+                )
+            elif isinstance(column, elements.TextClause):
+                render_with_label = False
+            elif isinstance(column, elements.UnaryExpression):
+                render_with_label = column.wraps_column_expression or asfrom
+            elif (
+                # general class of expressions that don't have a SQL-column
+                # addressible name.  includes scalar selects, bind parameters,
+                # SQL functions, others
+                not isinstance(column, elements.NamedColumn)
+                # deeper check that indicates there's no natural "name" to
+                # this element, which accommodates for custom SQL constructs
+                # that might have a ".name" attribute (but aren't SQL
+                # functions) but are not implementing this more recently added
+                # base class.  in theory the "NamedColumn" check should be
+                # enough, however here we seek to maintain legacy behaviors
+                # as well.
+                and column._non_anon_label is None
+            ):
+                render_with_label = True
+            else:
+                render_with_label = False
+
+            if render_with_label:
+                if not fallback_label_name:
+                    # used by the RETURNING case right now.  we generate it
+                    # here as 3rd party dialects may be referring to
+                    # _label_select_column method directly instead of the
+                    # just-added _label_returning_column method
+                    assert not column_is_repeated
+                    fallback_label_name = column._anon_name_label
+
+                fallback_label_name = (
+                    elements._truncated_label(fallback_label_name)
+                    if not isinstance(
+                        fallback_label_name, elements._truncated_label
+                    )
+                    else fallback_label_name
+                )
+
+                result_expr = _CompileLabel(
+                    col_expr, fallback_label_name, alt_names=(proxy_name,)
+                )
+            else:
+                result_expr = col_expr
+
+        column_clause_args.update(
+            within_columns_clause=within_columns_clause,
+            add_to_result_map=add_to_result_map,
+            include_table=include_table,
+        )
+        return result_expr._compiler_dispatch(self, **column_clause_args)
+
+    def format_from_hint_text(self, sqltext, table, hint, iscrud):
+        hinttext = self.get_from_hint_text(table, hint)
+        if hinttext:
+            sqltext += " " + hinttext
+        return sqltext
+
+    def get_select_hint_text(self, byfroms):
+        return None
+
+    def get_from_hint_text(self, table, text):
+        return None
+
+    def get_crud_hint_text(self, table, text):
+        return None
+
+    def get_statement_hint_text(self, hint_texts):
+        return " ".join(hint_texts)
+
+    _default_stack_entry: _CompilerStackEntry
+
+    if not typing.TYPE_CHECKING:
+        _default_stack_entry = util.immutabledict(
+            [("correlate_froms", frozenset()), ("asfrom_froms", frozenset())]
+        )
+
+    def _display_froms_for_select(
+        self, select_stmt, asfrom, lateral=False, **kw
+    ):
+        # utility method to help external dialects
+        # get the correct from list for a select.
+        # specifically the oracle dialect needs this feature
+        # right now.
+        toplevel = not self.stack
+        entry = self._default_stack_entry if toplevel else self.stack[-1]
+
+        compile_state = select_stmt._compile_state_factory(select_stmt, self)
+
+        correlate_froms = entry["correlate_froms"]
+        asfrom_froms = entry["asfrom_froms"]
+
+        if asfrom and not lateral:
+            froms = compile_state._get_display_froms(
+                explicit_correlate_froms=correlate_froms.difference(
+                    asfrom_froms
+                ),
+                implicit_correlate_froms=(),
+            )
+        else:
+            froms = compile_state._get_display_froms(
+                explicit_correlate_froms=correlate_froms,
+                implicit_correlate_froms=asfrom_froms,
+            )
+        return froms
+
+    translate_select_structure: Any = None
+    """if not ``None``, should be a callable which accepts ``(select_stmt,
+    **kw)`` and returns a select object.   this is used for structural changes
+    mostly to accommodate for LIMIT/OFFSET schemes
+
+    """
+
+    def visit_select(
+        self,
+        select_stmt,
+        asfrom=False,
+        insert_into=False,
+        fromhints=None,
+        compound_index=None,
+        select_wraps_for=None,
+        lateral=False,
+        from_linter=None,
+        **kwargs,
+    ):
+        assert select_wraps_for is None, (
+            "SQLAlchemy 1.4 requires use of "
+            "the translate_select_structure hook for structural "
+            "translations of SELECT objects"
+        )
+
+        # initial setup of SELECT.  the compile_state_factory may now
+        # be creating a totally different SELECT from the one that was
+        # passed in.  for ORM use this will convert from an ORM-state
+        # SELECT to a regular "Core" SELECT.  other composed operations
+        # such as computation of joins will be performed.
+
+        kwargs["within_columns_clause"] = False
+
+        compile_state = select_stmt._compile_state_factory(
+            select_stmt, self, **kwargs
+        )
+        kwargs["ambiguous_table_name_map"] = (
+            compile_state._ambiguous_table_name_map
+        )
+
+        select_stmt = compile_state.statement
+
+        toplevel = not self.stack
+
+        if toplevel and not self.compile_state:
+            self.compile_state = compile_state
+
+        is_embedded_select = compound_index is not None or insert_into
+
+        # translate step for Oracle, SQL Server which often need to
+        # restructure the SELECT to allow for LIMIT/OFFSET and possibly
+        # other conditions
+        if self.translate_select_structure:
+            new_select_stmt = self.translate_select_structure(
+                select_stmt, asfrom=asfrom, **kwargs
+            )
+
+            # if SELECT was restructured, maintain a link to the originals
+            # and assemble a new compile state
+            if new_select_stmt is not select_stmt:
+                compile_state_wraps_for = compile_state
+                select_wraps_for = select_stmt
+                select_stmt = new_select_stmt
+
+                compile_state = select_stmt._compile_state_factory(
+                    select_stmt, self, **kwargs
+                )
+                select_stmt = compile_state.statement
+
+        entry = self._default_stack_entry if toplevel else self.stack[-1]
+
+        populate_result_map = need_column_expressions = (
+            toplevel
+            or entry.get("need_result_map_for_compound", False)
+            or entry.get("need_result_map_for_nested", False)
+        )
+
+        # indicates there is a CompoundSelect in play and we are not the
+        # first select
+        if compound_index:
+            populate_result_map = False
+
+        # this was first proposed as part of #3372; however, it is not
+        # reached in current tests and could possibly be an assertion
+        # instead.
+        if not populate_result_map and "add_to_result_map" in kwargs:
+            del kwargs["add_to_result_map"]
+
+        froms = self._setup_select_stack(
+            select_stmt, compile_state, entry, asfrom, lateral, compound_index
+        )
+
+        column_clause_args = kwargs.copy()
+        column_clause_args.update(
+            {"within_label_clause": False, "within_columns_clause": False}
+        )
+
+        text = "SELECT "  # we're off to a good start !
+
+        if select_stmt._hints:
+            hint_text, byfrom = self._setup_select_hints(select_stmt)
+            if hint_text:
+                text += hint_text + " "
+        else:
+            byfrom = None
+
+        if select_stmt._independent_ctes:
+            self._dispatch_independent_ctes(select_stmt, kwargs)
+
+        if select_stmt._prefixes:
+            text += self._generate_prefixes(
+                select_stmt, select_stmt._prefixes, **kwargs
+            )
+
+        text += self.get_select_precolumns(select_stmt, **kwargs)
+        # the actual list of columns to print in the SELECT column list.
+        inner_columns = [
+            c
+            for c in [
+                self._label_select_column(
+                    select_stmt,
+                    column,
+                    populate_result_map,
+                    asfrom,
+                    column_clause_args,
+                    name=name,
+                    proxy_name=proxy_name,
+                    fallback_label_name=fallback_label_name,
+                    column_is_repeated=repeated,
+                    need_column_expressions=need_column_expressions,
+                )
+                for (
+                    name,
+                    proxy_name,
+                    fallback_label_name,
+                    column,
+                    repeated,
+                ) in compile_state.columns_plus_names
+            ]
+            if c is not None
+        ]
+
+        if populate_result_map and select_wraps_for is not None:
+            # if this select was generated from translate_select,
+            # rewrite the targeted columns in the result map
+
+            translate = dict(
+                zip(
+                    [
+                        name
+                        for (
+                            key,
+                            proxy_name,
+                            fallback_label_name,
+                            name,
+                            repeated,
+                        ) in compile_state.columns_plus_names
+                    ],
+                    [
+                        name
+                        for (
+                            key,
+                            proxy_name,
+                            fallback_label_name,
+                            name,
+                            repeated,
+                        ) in compile_state_wraps_for.columns_plus_names
+                    ],
+                )
+            )
+
+            self._result_columns = [
+                ResultColumnsEntry(
+                    key, name, tuple(translate.get(o, o) for o in obj), type_
+                )
+                for key, name, obj, type_ in self._result_columns
+            ]
+
+        text = self._compose_select_body(
+            text,
+            select_stmt,
+            compile_state,
+            inner_columns,
+            froms,
+            byfrom,
+            toplevel,
+            kwargs,
+        )
+
+        if select_stmt._statement_hints:
+            per_dialect = [
+                ht
+                for (dialect_name, ht) in select_stmt._statement_hints
+                if dialect_name in ("*", self.dialect.name)
+            ]
+            if per_dialect:
+                text += " " + self.get_statement_hint_text(per_dialect)
+
+        # In compound query, CTEs are shared at the compound level
+        if self.ctes and (not is_embedded_select or toplevel):
+            nesting_level = len(self.stack) if not toplevel else None
+            text = self._render_cte_clause(nesting_level=nesting_level) + text
+
+        if select_stmt._suffixes:
+            text += " " + self._generate_prefixes(
+                select_stmt, select_stmt._suffixes, **kwargs
+            )
+
+        self.stack.pop(-1)
+
+        return text
+
+    def _setup_select_hints(
+        self, select: Select[Any]
+    ) -> Tuple[str, _FromHintsType]:
+        byfrom = {
+            from_: hinttext
+            % {"name": from_._compiler_dispatch(self, ashint=True)}
+            for (from_, dialect), hinttext in select._hints.items()
+            if dialect in ("*", self.dialect.name)
+        }
+        hint_text = self.get_select_hint_text(byfrom)
+        return hint_text, byfrom
+
+    def _setup_select_stack(
+        self, select, compile_state, entry, asfrom, lateral, compound_index
+    ):
+        correlate_froms = entry["correlate_froms"]
+        asfrom_froms = entry["asfrom_froms"]
+
+        if compound_index == 0:
+            entry["select_0"] = select
+        elif compound_index:
+            select_0 = entry["select_0"]
+            numcols = len(select_0._all_selected_columns)
+
+            if len(compile_state.columns_plus_names) != numcols:
+                raise exc.CompileError(
+                    "All selectables passed to "
+                    "CompoundSelect must have identical numbers of "
+                    "columns; select #%d has %d columns, select "
+                    "#%d has %d"
+                    % (
+                        1,
+                        numcols,
+                        compound_index + 1,
+                        len(select._all_selected_columns),
+                    )
+                )
+
+        if asfrom and not lateral:
+            froms = compile_state._get_display_froms(
+                explicit_correlate_froms=correlate_froms.difference(
+                    asfrom_froms
+                ),
+                implicit_correlate_froms=(),
+            )
+        else:
+            froms = compile_state._get_display_froms(
+                explicit_correlate_froms=correlate_froms,
+                implicit_correlate_froms=asfrom_froms,
+            )
+
+        new_correlate_froms = set(_from_objects(*froms))
+        all_correlate_froms = new_correlate_froms.union(correlate_froms)
+
+        new_entry: _CompilerStackEntry = {
+            "asfrom_froms": new_correlate_froms,
+            "correlate_froms": all_correlate_froms,
+            "selectable": select,
+            "compile_state": compile_state,
+        }
+        self.stack.append(new_entry)
+
+        return froms
+
+    def _compose_select_body(
+        self,
+        text,
+        select,
+        compile_state,
+        inner_columns,
+        froms,
+        byfrom,
+        toplevel,
+        kwargs,
+    ):
+        text += ", ".join(inner_columns)
+
+        if self.linting & COLLECT_CARTESIAN_PRODUCTS:
+            from_linter = FromLinter({}, set())
+            warn_linting = self.linting & WARN_LINTING
+            if toplevel:
+                self.from_linter = from_linter
+        else:
+            from_linter = None
+            warn_linting = False
+
+        # adjust the whitespace for no inner columns, part of #9440,
+        # so that a no-col SELECT comes out as "SELECT WHERE..." or
+        # "SELECT FROM ...".
+        # while it would be better to have built the SELECT starting string
+        # without trailing whitespace first, then add whitespace only if inner
+        # cols were present, this breaks compatibility with various custom
+        # compilation schemes that are currently being tested.
+        if not inner_columns:
+            text = text.rstrip()
+
+        if froms:
+            text += " \nFROM "
+
+            if select._hints:
+                text += ", ".join(
+                    [
+                        f._compiler_dispatch(
+                            self,
+                            asfrom=True,
+                            fromhints=byfrom,
+                            from_linter=from_linter,
+                            **kwargs,
+                        )
+                        for f in froms
+                    ]
+                )
+            else:
+                text += ", ".join(
+                    [
+                        f._compiler_dispatch(
+                            self,
+                            asfrom=True,
+                            from_linter=from_linter,
+                            **kwargs,
+                        )
+                        for f in froms
+                    ]
+                )
+        else:
+            text += self.default_from()
+
+        if select._where_criteria:
+            t = self._generate_delimited_and_list(
+                select._where_criteria, from_linter=from_linter, **kwargs
+            )
+            if t:
+                text += " \nWHERE " + t
+
+        if warn_linting:
+            assert from_linter is not None
+            from_linter.warn()
+
+        if select._group_by_clauses:
+            text += self.group_by_clause(select, **kwargs)
+
+        if select._having_criteria:
+            t = self._generate_delimited_and_list(
+                select._having_criteria, **kwargs
+            )
+            if t:
+                text += " \nHAVING " + t
+
+        if select._order_by_clauses:
+            text += self.order_by_clause(select, **kwargs)
+
+        if select._has_row_limiting_clause:
+            text += self._row_limit_clause(select, **kwargs)
+
+        if select._for_update_arg is not None:
+            text += self.for_update_clause(select, **kwargs)
+
+        return text
+
+    def _generate_prefixes(self, stmt, prefixes, **kw):
+        clause = " ".join(
+            prefix._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw)
+            for prefix, dialect_name in prefixes
+            if dialect_name in (None, "*") or dialect_name == self.dialect.name
+        )
+        if clause:
+            clause += " "
+        return clause
+
+    def _render_cte_clause(
+        self,
+        nesting_level=None,
+        include_following_stack=False,
+    ):
+        """
+        include_following_stack
+            Also render the nesting CTEs on the next stack. Useful for
+            SQL structures like UNION or INSERT that can wrap SELECT
+            statements containing nesting CTEs.
+        """
+        if not self.ctes:
+            return ""
+
+        ctes: MutableMapping[CTE, str]
+
+        if nesting_level and nesting_level > 1:
+            ctes = util.OrderedDict()
+            for cte in list(self.ctes.keys()):
+                cte_level, cte_name, cte_opts = self.level_name_by_cte[
+                    cte._get_reference_cte()
+                ]
+                nesting = cte.nesting or cte_opts.nesting
+                is_rendered_level = cte_level == nesting_level or (
+                    include_following_stack and cte_level == nesting_level + 1
+                )
+                if not (nesting and is_rendered_level):
+                    continue
+
+                ctes[cte] = self.ctes[cte]
+
+        else:
+            ctes = self.ctes
+
+        if not ctes:
+            return ""
+        ctes_recursive = any([cte.recursive for cte in ctes])
+
+        cte_text = self.get_cte_preamble(ctes_recursive) + " "
+        cte_text += ", \n".join([txt for txt in ctes.values()])
+        cte_text += "\n "
+
+        if nesting_level and nesting_level > 1:
+            for cte in list(ctes.keys()):
+                cte_level, cte_name, cte_opts = self.level_name_by_cte[
+                    cte._get_reference_cte()
+                ]
+                del self.ctes[cte]
+                del self.ctes_by_level_name[(cte_level, cte_name)]
+                del self.level_name_by_cte[cte._get_reference_cte()]
+
+        return cte_text
+
+    def get_cte_preamble(self, recursive):
+        if recursive:
+            return "WITH RECURSIVE"
+        else:
+            return "WITH"
+
+    def get_select_precolumns(self, select, **kw):
+        """Called when building a ``SELECT`` statement, position is just
+        before column list.
+
+        """
+        if select._distinct_on:
+            util.warn_deprecated(
+                "DISTINCT ON is currently supported only by the PostgreSQL "
+                "dialect.  Use of DISTINCT ON for other backends is currently "
+                "silently ignored, however this usage is deprecated, and will "
+                "raise CompileError in a future release for all backends "
+                "that do not support this syntax.",
+                version="1.4",
+            )
+        return "DISTINCT " if select._distinct else ""
+
+    def group_by_clause(self, select, **kw):
+        """allow dialects to customize how GROUP BY is rendered."""
+
+        group_by = self._generate_delimited_list(
+            select._group_by_clauses, OPERATORS[operators.comma_op], **kw
+        )
+        if group_by:
+            return " GROUP BY " + group_by
+        else:
+            return ""
+
+    def order_by_clause(self, select, **kw):
+        """allow dialects to customize how ORDER BY is rendered."""
+
+        order_by = self._generate_delimited_list(
+            select._order_by_clauses, OPERATORS[operators.comma_op], **kw
+        )
+
+        if order_by:
+            return " ORDER BY " + order_by
+        else:
+            return ""
+
+    def for_update_clause(self, select, **kw):
+        return " FOR UPDATE"
+
+    def returning_clause(
+        self,
+        stmt: UpdateBase,
+        returning_cols: Sequence[ColumnElement[Any]],
+        *,
+        populate_result_map: bool,
+        **kw: Any,
+    ) -> str:
+        columns = [
+            self._label_returning_column(
+                stmt,
+                column,
+                populate_result_map,
+                fallback_label_name=fallback_label_name,
+                column_is_repeated=repeated,
+                name=name,
+                proxy_name=proxy_name,
+                **kw,
+            )
+            for (
+                name,
+                proxy_name,
+                fallback_label_name,
+                column,
+                repeated,
+            ) in stmt._generate_columns_plus_names(
+                True, cols=base._select_iterables(returning_cols)
+            )
+        ]
+
+        return "RETURNING " + ", ".join(columns)
+
+    def limit_clause(self, select, **kw):
+        text = ""
+        if select._limit_clause is not None:
+            text += "\n LIMIT " + self.process(select._limit_clause, **kw)
+        if select._offset_clause is not None:
+            if select._limit_clause is None:
+                text += "\n LIMIT -1"
+            text += " OFFSET " + self.process(select._offset_clause, **kw)
+        return text
+
+    def fetch_clause(
+        self,
+        select,
+        fetch_clause=None,
+        require_offset=False,
+        use_literal_execute_for_simple_int=False,
+        **kw,
+    ):
+        if fetch_clause is None:
+            fetch_clause = select._fetch_clause
+            fetch_clause_options = select._fetch_clause_options
+        else:
+            fetch_clause_options = {"percent": False, "with_ties": False}
+
+        text = ""
+
+        if select._offset_clause is not None:
+            offset_clause = select._offset_clause
+            if (
+                use_literal_execute_for_simple_int
+                and select._simple_int_clause(offset_clause)
+            ):
+                offset_clause = offset_clause.render_literal_execute()
+            offset_str = self.process(offset_clause, **kw)
+            text += "\n OFFSET %s ROWS" % offset_str
+        elif require_offset:
+            text += "\n OFFSET 0 ROWS"
+
+        if fetch_clause is not None:
+            if (
+                use_literal_execute_for_simple_int
+                and select._simple_int_clause(fetch_clause)
+            ):
+                fetch_clause = fetch_clause.render_literal_execute()
+            text += "\n FETCH FIRST %s%s ROWS %s" % (
+                self.process(fetch_clause, **kw),
+                " PERCENT" if fetch_clause_options["percent"] else "",
+                "WITH TIES" if fetch_clause_options["with_ties"] else "ONLY",
+            )
+        return text
+
+    def visit_table(
+        self,
+        table,
+        asfrom=False,
+        iscrud=False,
+        ashint=False,
+        fromhints=None,
+        use_schema=True,
+        from_linter=None,
+        ambiguous_table_name_map=None,
+        **kwargs,
+    ):
+        if from_linter:
+            from_linter.froms[table] = table.fullname
+
+        if asfrom or ashint:
+            effective_schema = self.preparer.schema_for_object(table)
+
+            if use_schema and effective_schema:
+                ret = (
+                    self.preparer.quote_schema(effective_schema)
+                    + "."
+                    + self.preparer.quote(table.name)
+                )
+            else:
+                ret = self.preparer.quote(table.name)
+
+                if (
+                    not effective_schema
+                    and ambiguous_table_name_map
+                    and table.name in ambiguous_table_name_map
+                ):
+                    anon_name = self._truncated_identifier(
+                        "alias", ambiguous_table_name_map[table.name]
+                    )
+
+                    ret = ret + self.get_render_as_alias_suffix(
+                        self.preparer.format_alias(None, anon_name)
+                    )
+
+            if fromhints and table in fromhints:
+                ret = self.format_from_hint_text(
+                    ret, table, fromhints[table], iscrud
+                )
+            return ret
+        else:
+            return ""
+
+    def visit_join(self, join, asfrom=False, from_linter=None, **kwargs):
+        if from_linter:
+            from_linter.edges.update(
+                itertools.product(
+                    _de_clone(join.left._from_objects),
+                    _de_clone(join.right._from_objects),
+                )
+            )
+
+        if join.full:
+            join_type = " FULL OUTER JOIN "
+        elif join.isouter:
+            join_type = " LEFT OUTER JOIN "
+        else:
+            join_type = " JOIN "
+        return (
+            join.left._compiler_dispatch(
+                self, asfrom=True, from_linter=from_linter, **kwargs
+            )
+            + join_type
+            + join.right._compiler_dispatch(
+                self, asfrom=True, from_linter=from_linter, **kwargs
+            )
+            + " ON "
+            # TODO: likely need asfrom=True here?
+            + join.onclause._compiler_dispatch(
+                self, from_linter=from_linter, **kwargs
+            )
+        )
+
+    def _setup_crud_hints(self, stmt, table_text):
+        dialect_hints = {
+            table: hint_text
+            for (table, dialect), hint_text in stmt._hints.items()
+            if dialect in ("*", self.dialect.name)
+        }
+        if stmt.table in dialect_hints:
+            table_text = self.format_from_hint_text(
+                table_text, stmt.table, dialect_hints[stmt.table], True
+            )
+        return dialect_hints, table_text
+
+    # within the realm of "insertmanyvalues sentinel columns",
+    # these lookups match different kinds of Column() configurations
+    # to specific backend capabilities.  they are broken into two
+    # lookups, one for autoincrement columns and the other for non
+    # autoincrement columns
+    _sentinel_col_non_autoinc_lookup = util.immutabledict(
+        {
+            _SentinelDefaultCharacterization.CLIENTSIDE: (
+                InsertmanyvaluesSentinelOpts._SUPPORTED_OR_NOT
+            ),
+            _SentinelDefaultCharacterization.SENTINEL_DEFAULT: (
+                InsertmanyvaluesSentinelOpts._SUPPORTED_OR_NOT
+            ),
+            _SentinelDefaultCharacterization.NONE: (
+                InsertmanyvaluesSentinelOpts._SUPPORTED_OR_NOT
+            ),
+            _SentinelDefaultCharacterization.IDENTITY: (
+                InsertmanyvaluesSentinelOpts.IDENTITY
+            ),
+            _SentinelDefaultCharacterization.SEQUENCE: (
+                InsertmanyvaluesSentinelOpts.SEQUENCE
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+    _sentinel_col_autoinc_lookup = _sentinel_col_non_autoinc_lookup.union(
+        {
+            _SentinelDefaultCharacterization.NONE: (
+                InsertmanyvaluesSentinelOpts.AUTOINCREMENT
+            ),
+        }
+    )
+
+    def _get_sentinel_column_for_table(
+        self, table: Table
+    ) -> Optional[Sequence[Column[Any]]]:
+        """given a :class:`.Table`, return a usable sentinel column or
+        columns for this dialect if any.
+
+        Return None if no sentinel columns could be identified, or raise an
+        error if a column was marked as a sentinel explicitly but isn't
+        compatible with this dialect.
+
+        """
+
+        sentinel_opts = self.dialect.insertmanyvalues_implicit_sentinel
+        sentinel_characteristics = table._sentinel_column_characteristics
+
+        sent_cols = sentinel_characteristics.columns
+
+        if sent_cols is None:
+            return None
+
+        if sentinel_characteristics.is_autoinc:
+            bitmask = self._sentinel_col_autoinc_lookup.get(
+                sentinel_characteristics.default_characterization, 0
+            )
+        else:
+            bitmask = self._sentinel_col_non_autoinc_lookup.get(
+                sentinel_characteristics.default_characterization, 0
+            )
+
+        if sentinel_opts & bitmask:
+            return sent_cols
+
+        if sentinel_characteristics.is_explicit:
+            # a column was explicitly marked as insert_sentinel=True,
+            # however it is not compatible with this dialect.   they should
+            # not indicate this column as a sentinel if they need to include
+            # this dialect.
+
+            # TODO: do we want non-primary key explicit sentinel cols
+            # that can gracefully degrade for some backends?
+            # insert_sentinel="degrade" perhaps.  not for the initial release.
+            # I am hoping people are generally not dealing with this sentinel
+            # business at all.
+
+            # if is_explicit is True, there will be only one sentinel column.
+
+            raise exc.InvalidRequestError(
+                f"Column {sent_cols[0]} can't be explicitly "
+                "marked as a sentinel column when using the "
+                f"{self.dialect.name} dialect, as the "
+                "particular type of default generation on this column is "
+                "not currently compatible with this dialect's specific "
+                f"INSERT..RETURNING syntax which can receive the "
+                "server-generated value in "
+                "a deterministic way.  To remove this error, remove "
+                "insert_sentinel=True from primary key autoincrement "
+                "columns; these columns are automatically used as "
+                "sentinels for supported dialects in any case."
+            )
+
+        return None
+
+    def _deliver_insertmanyvalues_batches(
+        self,
+        statement: str,
+        parameters: _DBAPIMultiExecuteParams,
+        compiled_parameters: List[_MutableCoreSingleExecuteParams],
+        generic_setinputsizes: Optional[_GenericSetInputSizesType],
+        batch_size: int,
+        sort_by_parameter_order: bool,
+        schema_translate_map: Optional[SchemaTranslateMapType],
+    ) -> Iterator[_InsertManyValuesBatch]:
+        imv = self._insertmanyvalues
+        assert imv is not None
+
+        if not imv.sentinel_param_keys:
+            _sentinel_from_params = None
+        else:
+            _sentinel_from_params = operator.itemgetter(
+                *imv.sentinel_param_keys
+            )
+
+        lenparams = len(parameters)
+        if imv.is_default_expr and not self.dialect.supports_default_metavalue:
+            # backend doesn't support
+            # INSERT INTO table (pk_col) VALUES (DEFAULT), (DEFAULT), ...
+            # at the moment this is basically SQL Server due to
+            # not being able to use DEFAULT for identity column
+            # just yield out that many single statements!  still
+            # faster than a whole connection.execute() call ;)
+            #
+            # note we still are taking advantage of the fact that we know
+            # we are using RETURNING.   The generalized approach of fetching
+            # cursor.lastrowid etc. still goes through the more heavyweight
+            # "ExecutionContext per statement" system as it isn't usable
+            # as a generic "RETURNING" approach
+            use_row_at_a_time = True
+            downgraded = False
+        elif not self.dialect.supports_multivalues_insert or (
+            sort_by_parameter_order
+            and self._result_columns
+            and (imv.sentinel_columns is None or imv.includes_upsert_behaviors)
+        ):
+            # deterministic order was requested and the compiler could
+            # not organize sentinel columns for this dialect/statement.
+            # use row at a time
+            use_row_at_a_time = True
+            downgraded = True
+        else:
+            use_row_at_a_time = False
+            downgraded = False
+
+        if use_row_at_a_time:
+            for batchnum, (param, compiled_param) in enumerate(
+                cast(
+                    "Sequence[Tuple[_DBAPISingleExecuteParams, _MutableCoreSingleExecuteParams]]",  # noqa: E501
+                    zip(parameters, compiled_parameters),
+                ),
+                1,
+            ):
+                yield _InsertManyValuesBatch(
+                    statement,
+                    param,
+                    generic_setinputsizes,
+                    [param],
+                    (
+                        [_sentinel_from_params(compiled_param)]
+                        if _sentinel_from_params
+                        else []
+                    ),
+                    1,
+                    batchnum,
+                    lenparams,
+                    sort_by_parameter_order,
+                    downgraded,
+                )
+            return
+
+        if schema_translate_map:
+            rst = functools.partial(
+                self.preparer._render_schema_translates,
+                schema_translate_map=schema_translate_map,
+            )
+        else:
+            rst = None
+
+        imv_single_values_expr = imv.single_values_expr
+        if rst:
+            imv_single_values_expr = rst(imv_single_values_expr)
+
+        executemany_values = f"({imv_single_values_expr})"
+        statement = statement.replace(executemany_values, "__EXECMANY_TOKEN__")
+
+        # Use optional insertmanyvalues_max_parameters
+        # to further shrink the batch size so that there are no more than
+        # insertmanyvalues_max_parameters params.
+        # Currently used by SQL Server, which limits statements to 2100 bound
+        # parameters (actually 2099).
+        max_params = self.dialect.insertmanyvalues_max_parameters
+        if max_params:
+            total_num_of_params = len(self.bind_names)
+            num_params_per_batch = len(imv.insert_crud_params)
+            num_params_outside_of_batch = (
+                total_num_of_params - num_params_per_batch
+            )
+            batch_size = min(
+                batch_size,
+                (
+                    (max_params - num_params_outside_of_batch)
+                    // num_params_per_batch
+                ),
+            )
+
+        batches = cast("List[Sequence[Any]]", list(parameters))
+        compiled_batches = cast(
+            "List[Sequence[Any]]", list(compiled_parameters)
+        )
+
+        processed_setinputsizes: Optional[_GenericSetInputSizesType] = None
+        batchnum = 1
+        total_batches = lenparams // batch_size + (
+            1 if lenparams % batch_size else 0
+        )
+
+        insert_crud_params = imv.insert_crud_params
+        assert insert_crud_params is not None
+
+        if rst:
+            insert_crud_params = [
+                (col, key, rst(expr), st)
+                for col, key, expr, st in insert_crud_params
+            ]
+
+        escaped_bind_names: Mapping[str, str]
+        expand_pos_lower_index = expand_pos_upper_index = 0
+
+        if not self.positional:
+            if self.escaped_bind_names:
+                escaped_bind_names = self.escaped_bind_names
+            else:
+                escaped_bind_names = {}
+
+            all_keys = set(parameters[0])
+
+            def apply_placeholders(keys, formatted):
+                for key in keys:
+                    key = escaped_bind_names.get(key, key)
+                    formatted = formatted.replace(
+                        self.bindtemplate % {"name": key},
+                        self.bindtemplate
+                        % {"name": f"{key}__EXECMANY_INDEX__"},
+                    )
+                return formatted
+
+            if imv.embed_values_counter:
+                imv_values_counter = ", _IMV_VALUES_COUNTER"
+            else:
+                imv_values_counter = ""
+            formatted_values_clause = f"""({', '.join(
+                apply_placeholders(bind_keys, formatted)
+                for _, _, formatted, bind_keys in insert_crud_params
+            )}{imv_values_counter})"""
+
+            keys_to_replace = all_keys.intersection(
+                escaped_bind_names.get(key, key)
+                for _, _, _, bind_keys in insert_crud_params
+                for key in bind_keys
+            )
+            base_parameters = {
+                key: parameters[0][key]
+                for key in all_keys.difference(keys_to_replace)
+            }
+            executemany_values_w_comma = ""
+        else:
+            formatted_values_clause = ""
+            keys_to_replace = set()
+            base_parameters = {}
+
+            if imv.embed_values_counter:
+                executemany_values_w_comma = (
+                    f"({imv_single_values_expr}, _IMV_VALUES_COUNTER), "
+                )
+            else:
+                executemany_values_w_comma = f"({imv_single_values_expr}), "
+
+            all_names_we_will_expand: Set[str] = set()
+            for elem in imv.insert_crud_params:
+                all_names_we_will_expand.update(elem[3])
+
+            # get the start and end position in a particular list
+            # of parameters where we will be doing the "expanding".
+            # statements can have params on either side or both sides,
+            # given RETURNING and CTEs
+            if all_names_we_will_expand:
+                positiontup = self.positiontup
+                assert positiontup is not None
+
+                all_expand_positions = {
+                    idx
+                    for idx, name in enumerate(positiontup)
+                    if name in all_names_we_will_expand
+                }
+                expand_pos_lower_index = min(all_expand_positions)
+                expand_pos_upper_index = max(all_expand_positions) + 1
+                assert (
+                    len(all_expand_positions)
+                    == expand_pos_upper_index - expand_pos_lower_index
+                )
+
+            if self._numeric_binds:
+                escaped = re.escape(self._numeric_binds_identifier_char)
+                executemany_values_w_comma = re.sub(
+                    rf"{escaped}\d+", "%s", executemany_values_w_comma
+                )
+
+        while batches:
+            batch = batches[0:batch_size]
+            compiled_batch = compiled_batches[0:batch_size]
+
+            batches[0:batch_size] = []
+            compiled_batches[0:batch_size] = []
+
+            if batches:
+                current_batch_size = batch_size
+            else:
+                current_batch_size = len(batch)
+
+            if generic_setinputsizes:
+                # if setinputsizes is present, expand this collection to
+                # suit the batch length as well
+                # currently this will be mssql+pyodbc for internal dialects
+                processed_setinputsizes = [
+                    (new_key, len_, typ)
+                    for new_key, len_, typ in (
+                        (f"{key}_{index}", len_, typ)
+                        for index in range(current_batch_size)
+                        for key, len_, typ in generic_setinputsizes
+                    )
+                ]
+
+            replaced_parameters: Any
+            if self.positional:
+                num_ins_params = imv.num_positional_params_counted
+
+                batch_iterator: Iterable[Sequence[Any]]
+                extra_params_left: Sequence[Any]
+                extra_params_right: Sequence[Any]
+
+                if num_ins_params == len(batch[0]):
+                    extra_params_left = extra_params_right = ()
+                    batch_iterator = batch
+                else:
+                    extra_params_left = batch[0][:expand_pos_lower_index]
+                    extra_params_right = batch[0][expand_pos_upper_index:]
+                    batch_iterator = (
+                        b[expand_pos_lower_index:expand_pos_upper_index]
+                        for b in batch
+                    )
+
+                if imv.embed_values_counter:
+                    expanded_values_string = (
+                        "".join(
+                            executemany_values_w_comma.replace(
+                                "_IMV_VALUES_COUNTER", str(i)
+                            )
+                            for i, _ in enumerate(batch)
+                        )
+                    )[:-2]
+                else:
+                    expanded_values_string = (
+                        (executemany_values_w_comma * current_batch_size)
+                    )[:-2]
+
+                if self._numeric_binds and num_ins_params > 0:
+                    # numeric will always number the parameters inside of
+                    # VALUES (and thus order self.positiontup) to be higher
+                    # than non-VALUES parameters, no matter where in the
+                    # statement those non-VALUES parameters appear (this is
+                    # ensured in _process_numeric by numbering first all
+                    # params that are not in _values_bindparam)
+                    # therefore all extra params are always
+                    # on the left side and numbered lower than the VALUES
+                    # parameters
+                    assert not extra_params_right
+
+                    start = expand_pos_lower_index + 1
+                    end = num_ins_params * (current_batch_size) + start
+
+                    # need to format here, since statement may contain
+                    # unescaped %, while values_string contains just (%s, %s)
+                    positions = tuple(
+                        f"{self._numeric_binds_identifier_char}{i}"
+                        for i in range(start, end)
+                    )
+                    expanded_values_string = expanded_values_string % positions
+
+                replaced_statement = statement.replace(
+                    "__EXECMANY_TOKEN__", expanded_values_string
+                )
+
+                replaced_parameters = tuple(
+                    itertools.chain.from_iterable(batch_iterator)
+                )
+
+                replaced_parameters = (
+                    extra_params_left
+                    + replaced_parameters
+                    + extra_params_right
+                )
+
+            else:
+                replaced_values_clauses = []
+                replaced_parameters = base_parameters.copy()
+
+                for i, param in enumerate(batch):
+                    fmv = formatted_values_clause.replace(
+                        "EXECMANY_INDEX__", str(i)
+                    )
+                    if imv.embed_values_counter:
+                        fmv = fmv.replace("_IMV_VALUES_COUNTER", str(i))
+
+                    replaced_values_clauses.append(fmv)
+                    replaced_parameters.update(
+                        {f"{key}__{i}": param[key] for key in keys_to_replace}
+                    )
+
+                replaced_statement = statement.replace(
+                    "__EXECMANY_TOKEN__",
+                    ", ".join(replaced_values_clauses),
+                )
+
+            yield _InsertManyValuesBatch(
+                replaced_statement,
+                replaced_parameters,
+                processed_setinputsizes,
+                batch,
+                (
+                    [_sentinel_from_params(cb) for cb in compiled_batch]
+                    if _sentinel_from_params
+                    else []
+                ),
+                current_batch_size,
+                batchnum,
+                total_batches,
+                sort_by_parameter_order,
+                False,
+            )
+            batchnum += 1
+
+    def visit_insert(
+        self, insert_stmt, visited_bindparam=None, visiting_cte=None, **kw
+    ):
+        compile_state = insert_stmt._compile_state_factory(
+            insert_stmt, self, **kw
+        )
+        insert_stmt = compile_state.statement
+
+        if visiting_cte is not None:
+            kw["visiting_cte"] = visiting_cte
+            toplevel = False
+        else:
+            toplevel = not self.stack
+
+        if toplevel:
+            self.isinsert = True
+            if not self.dml_compile_state:
+                self.dml_compile_state = compile_state
+            if not self.compile_state:
+                self.compile_state = compile_state
+
+        self.stack.append(
+            {
+                "correlate_froms": set(),
+                "asfrom_froms": set(),
+                "selectable": insert_stmt,
+            }
+        )
+
+        counted_bindparam = 0
+
+        # reset any incoming "visited_bindparam" collection
+        visited_bindparam = None
+
+        # for positional, insertmanyvalues needs to know how many
+        # bound parameters are in the VALUES sequence; there's no simple
+        # rule because default expressions etc. can have zero or more
+        # params inside them.   After multiple attempts to figure this out,
+        # this very simplistic "count after" works and is
+        # likely the least amount of callcounts, though looks clumsy
+        if self.positional and visiting_cte is None:
+            # if we are inside a CTE, don't count parameters
+            # here since they wont be for insertmanyvalues. keep
+            # visited_bindparam at None so no counting happens.
+            # see #9173
+            visited_bindparam = []
+
+        crud_params_struct = crud._get_crud_params(
+            self,
+            insert_stmt,
+            compile_state,
+            toplevel,
+            visited_bindparam=visited_bindparam,
+            **kw,
+        )
+
+        if self.positional and visited_bindparam is not None:
+            counted_bindparam = len(visited_bindparam)
+            if self._numeric_binds:
+                if self._values_bindparam is not None:
+                    self._values_bindparam += visited_bindparam
+                else:
+                    self._values_bindparam = visited_bindparam
+
+        crud_params_single = crud_params_struct.single_params
+
+        if (
+            not crud_params_single
+            and not self.dialect.supports_default_values
+            and not self.dialect.supports_default_metavalue
+            and not self.dialect.supports_empty_insert
+        ):
+            raise exc.CompileError(
+                "The '%s' dialect with current database "
+                "version settings does not support empty "
+                "inserts." % self.dialect.name
+            )
+
+        if compile_state._has_multi_parameters:
+            if not self.dialect.supports_multivalues_insert:
+                raise exc.CompileError(
+                    "The '%s' dialect with current database "
+                    "version settings does not support "
+                    "in-place multirow inserts." % self.dialect.name
+                )
+            elif (
+                self.implicit_returning or insert_stmt._returning
+            ) and insert_stmt._sort_by_parameter_order:
+                raise exc.CompileError(
+                    "RETURNING cannot be determinstically sorted when "
+                    "using an INSERT which includes multi-row values()."
+                )
+            crud_params_single = crud_params_struct.single_params
+        else:
+            crud_params_single = crud_params_struct.single_params
+
+        preparer = self.preparer
+        supports_default_values = self.dialect.supports_default_values
+
+        text = "INSERT "
+
+        if insert_stmt._prefixes:
+            text += self._generate_prefixes(
+                insert_stmt, insert_stmt._prefixes, **kw
+            )
+
+        text += "INTO "
+        table_text = preparer.format_table(insert_stmt.table)
+
+        if insert_stmt._hints:
+            _, table_text = self._setup_crud_hints(insert_stmt, table_text)
+
+        if insert_stmt._independent_ctes:
+            self._dispatch_independent_ctes(insert_stmt, kw)
+
+        text += table_text
+
+        if crud_params_single or not supports_default_values:
+            text += " (%s)" % ", ".join(
+                [expr for _, expr, _, _ in crud_params_single]
+            )
+
+        # look for insertmanyvalues attributes that would have been configured
+        # by crud.py as it scanned through the columns to be part of the
+        # INSERT
+        use_insertmanyvalues = crud_params_struct.use_insertmanyvalues
+        named_sentinel_params: Optional[Sequence[str]] = None
+        add_sentinel_cols = None
+        implicit_sentinel = False
+
+        returning_cols = self.implicit_returning or insert_stmt._returning
+        if returning_cols:
+            add_sentinel_cols = crud_params_struct.use_sentinel_columns
+            if add_sentinel_cols is not None:
+                assert use_insertmanyvalues
+
+                # search for the sentinel column explicitly present
+                # in the INSERT columns list, and additionally check that
+                # this column has a bound parameter name set up that's in the
+                # parameter list.  If both of these cases are present, it means
+                # we will have a client side value for the sentinel in each
+                # parameter set.
+
+                _params_by_col = {
+                    col: param_names
+                    for col, _, _, param_names in crud_params_single
+                }
+                named_sentinel_params = []
+                for _add_sentinel_col in add_sentinel_cols:
+                    if _add_sentinel_col not in _params_by_col:
+                        named_sentinel_params = None
+                        break
+                    param_name = self._within_exec_param_key_getter(
+                        _add_sentinel_col
+                    )
+                    if param_name not in _params_by_col[_add_sentinel_col]:
+                        named_sentinel_params = None
+                        break
+                    named_sentinel_params.append(param_name)
+
+                if named_sentinel_params is None:
+                    # if we are not going to have a client side value for
+                    # the sentinel in the parameter set, that means it's
+                    # an autoincrement, an IDENTITY, or a server-side SQL
+                    # expression like nextval('seqname').  So this is
+                    # an "implicit" sentinel; we will look for it in
+                    # RETURNING
+                    # only, and then sort on it.  For this case on PG,
+                    # SQL Server we have to use a special INSERT form
+                    # that guarantees the server side function lines up with
+                    # the entries in the VALUES.
+                    if (
+                        self.dialect.insertmanyvalues_implicit_sentinel
+                        & InsertmanyvaluesSentinelOpts.ANY_AUTOINCREMENT
+                    ):
+                        implicit_sentinel = True
+                    else:
+                        # here, we are not using a sentinel at all
+                        # and we are likely the SQLite dialect.
+                        # The first add_sentinel_col that we have should not
+                        # be marked as "insert_sentinel=True".  if it was,
+                        # an error should have been raised in
+                        # _get_sentinel_column_for_table.
+                        assert not add_sentinel_cols[0]._insert_sentinel, (
+                            "sentinel selection rules should have prevented "
+                            "us from getting here for this dialect"
+                        )
+
+                # always put the sentinel columns last.  even if they are
+                # in the returning list already, they will be there twice
+                # then.
+                returning_cols = list(returning_cols) + list(add_sentinel_cols)
+
+            returning_clause = self.returning_clause(
+                insert_stmt,
+                returning_cols,
+                populate_result_map=toplevel,
+            )
+
+            if self.returning_precedes_values:
+                text += " " + returning_clause
+
+        else:
+            returning_clause = None
+
+        if insert_stmt.select is not None:
+            # placed here by crud.py
+            select_text = self.process(
+                self.stack[-1]["insert_from_select"], insert_into=True, **kw
+            )
+
+            if self.ctes and self.dialect.cte_follows_insert:
+                nesting_level = len(self.stack) if not toplevel else None
+                text += " %s%s" % (
+                    self._render_cte_clause(
+                        nesting_level=nesting_level,
+                        include_following_stack=True,
+                    ),
+                    select_text,
+                )
+            else:
+                text += " %s" % select_text
+        elif not crud_params_single and supports_default_values:
+            text += " DEFAULT VALUES"
+            if use_insertmanyvalues:
+                self._insertmanyvalues = _InsertManyValues(
+                    True,
+                    self.dialect.default_metavalue_token,
+                    cast(
+                        "List[crud._CrudParamElementStr]", crud_params_single
+                    ),
+                    counted_bindparam,
+                    sort_by_parameter_order=(
+                        insert_stmt._sort_by_parameter_order
+                    ),
+                    includes_upsert_behaviors=(
+                        insert_stmt._post_values_clause is not None
+                    ),
+                    sentinel_columns=add_sentinel_cols,
+                    num_sentinel_columns=(
+                        len(add_sentinel_cols) if add_sentinel_cols else 0
+                    ),
+                    implicit_sentinel=implicit_sentinel,
+                )
+        elif compile_state._has_multi_parameters:
+            text += " VALUES %s" % (
+                ", ".join(
+                    "(%s)"
+                    % (", ".join(value for _, _, value, _ in crud_param_set))
+                    for crud_param_set in crud_params_struct.all_multi_params
+                ),
+            )
+        else:
+            insert_single_values_expr = ", ".join(
+                [
+                    value
+                    for _, _, value, _ in cast(
+                        "List[crud._CrudParamElementStr]",
+                        crud_params_single,
+                    )
+                ]
+            )
+
+            if use_insertmanyvalues:
+                if (
+                    implicit_sentinel
+                    and (
+                        self.dialect.insertmanyvalues_implicit_sentinel
+                        & InsertmanyvaluesSentinelOpts.USE_INSERT_FROM_SELECT
+                    )
+                    # this is checking if we have
+                    # INSERT INTO table (id) VALUES (DEFAULT).
+                    and not (crud_params_struct.is_default_metavalue_only)
+                ):
+                    # if we have a sentinel column that is server generated,
+                    # then for selected backends render the VALUES list as a
+                    # subquery.  This is the orderable form supported by
+                    # PostgreSQL and SQL Server.
+                    embed_sentinel_value = True
+
+                    render_bind_casts = (
+                        self.dialect.insertmanyvalues_implicit_sentinel
+                        & InsertmanyvaluesSentinelOpts.RENDER_SELECT_COL_CASTS
+                    )
+
+                    colnames = ", ".join(
+                        f"p{i}" for i, _ in enumerate(crud_params_single)
+                    )
+
+                    if render_bind_casts:
+                        # render casts for the SELECT list.  For PG, we are
+                        # already rendering bind casts in the parameter list,
+                        # selectively for the more "tricky" types like ARRAY.
+                        # however, even for the "easy" types, if the parameter
+                        # is NULL for every entry, PG gives up and says
+                        # "it must be TEXT", which fails for other easy types
+                        # like ints.  So we cast on this side too.
+                        colnames_w_cast = ", ".join(
+                            self.render_bind_cast(
+                                col.type,
+                                col.type._unwrapped_dialect_impl(self.dialect),
+                                f"p{i}",
+                            )
+                            for i, (col, *_) in enumerate(crud_params_single)
+                        )
+                    else:
+                        colnames_w_cast = colnames
+
+                    text += (
+                        f" SELECT {colnames_w_cast} FROM "
+                        f"(VALUES ({insert_single_values_expr})) "
+                        f"AS imp_sen({colnames}, sen_counter) "
+                        "ORDER BY sen_counter"
+                    )
+                else:
+                    # otherwise, if no sentinel or backend doesn't support
+                    # orderable subquery form, use a plain VALUES list
+                    embed_sentinel_value = False
+                    text += f" VALUES ({insert_single_values_expr})"
+
+                self._insertmanyvalues = _InsertManyValues(
+                    is_default_expr=False,
+                    single_values_expr=insert_single_values_expr,
+                    insert_crud_params=cast(
+                        "List[crud._CrudParamElementStr]",
+                        crud_params_single,
+                    ),
+                    num_positional_params_counted=counted_bindparam,
+                    sort_by_parameter_order=(
+                        insert_stmt._sort_by_parameter_order
+                    ),
+                    includes_upsert_behaviors=(
+                        insert_stmt._post_values_clause is not None
+                    ),
+                    sentinel_columns=add_sentinel_cols,
+                    num_sentinel_columns=(
+                        len(add_sentinel_cols) if add_sentinel_cols else 0
+                    ),
+                    sentinel_param_keys=named_sentinel_params,
+                    implicit_sentinel=implicit_sentinel,
+                    embed_values_counter=embed_sentinel_value,
+                )
+
+            else:
+                text += f" VALUES ({insert_single_values_expr})"
+
+        if insert_stmt._post_values_clause is not None:
+            post_values_clause = self.process(
+                insert_stmt._post_values_clause, **kw
+            )
+            if post_values_clause:
+                text += " " + post_values_clause
+
+        if returning_clause and not self.returning_precedes_values:
+            text += " " + returning_clause
+
+        if self.ctes and not self.dialect.cte_follows_insert:
+            nesting_level = len(self.stack) if not toplevel else None
+            text = (
+                self._render_cte_clause(
+                    nesting_level=nesting_level,
+                    include_following_stack=True,
+                )
+                + text
+            )
+
+        self.stack.pop(-1)
+
+        return text
+
+    def update_limit_clause(self, update_stmt):
+        """Provide a hook for MySQL to add LIMIT to the UPDATE"""
+        return None
+
+    def update_tables_clause(self, update_stmt, from_table, extra_froms, **kw):
+        """Provide a hook to override the initial table clause
+        in an UPDATE statement.
+
+        MySQL overrides this.
+
+        """
+        kw["asfrom"] = True
+        return from_table._compiler_dispatch(self, iscrud=True, **kw)
+
+    def update_from_clause(
+        self, update_stmt, from_table, extra_froms, from_hints, **kw
+    ):
+        """Provide a hook to override the generation of an
+        UPDATE..FROM clause.
+
+        MySQL and MSSQL override this.
+
+        """
+        raise NotImplementedError(
+            "This backend does not support multiple-table "
+            "criteria within UPDATE"
+        )
+
+    def visit_update(self, update_stmt, visiting_cte=None, **kw):
+        compile_state = update_stmt._compile_state_factory(
+            update_stmt, self, **kw
+        )
+        update_stmt = compile_state.statement
+
+        if visiting_cte is not None:
+            kw["visiting_cte"] = visiting_cte
+            toplevel = False
+        else:
+            toplevel = not self.stack
+
+        if toplevel:
+            self.isupdate = True
+            if not self.dml_compile_state:
+                self.dml_compile_state = compile_state
+            if not self.compile_state:
+                self.compile_state = compile_state
+
+        if self.linting & COLLECT_CARTESIAN_PRODUCTS:
+            from_linter = FromLinter({}, set())
+            warn_linting = self.linting & WARN_LINTING
+            if toplevel:
+                self.from_linter = from_linter
+        else:
+            from_linter = None
+            warn_linting = False
+
+        extra_froms = compile_state._extra_froms
+        is_multitable = bool(extra_froms)
+
+        if is_multitable:
+            # main table might be a JOIN
+            main_froms = set(_from_objects(update_stmt.table))
+            render_extra_froms = [
+                f for f in extra_froms if f not in main_froms
+            ]
+            correlate_froms = main_froms.union(extra_froms)
+        else:
+            render_extra_froms = []
+            correlate_froms = {update_stmt.table}
+
+        self.stack.append(
+            {
+                "correlate_froms": correlate_froms,
+                "asfrom_froms": correlate_froms,
+                "selectable": update_stmt,
+            }
+        )
+
+        text = "UPDATE "
+
+        if update_stmt._prefixes:
+            text += self._generate_prefixes(
+                update_stmt, update_stmt._prefixes, **kw
+            )
+
+        table_text = self.update_tables_clause(
+            update_stmt,
+            update_stmt.table,
+            render_extra_froms,
+            from_linter=from_linter,
+            **kw,
+        )
+        crud_params_struct = crud._get_crud_params(
+            self, update_stmt, compile_state, toplevel, **kw
+        )
+        crud_params = crud_params_struct.single_params
+
+        if update_stmt._hints:
+            dialect_hints, table_text = self._setup_crud_hints(
+                update_stmt, table_text
+            )
+        else:
+            dialect_hints = None
+
+        if update_stmt._independent_ctes:
+            self._dispatch_independent_ctes(update_stmt, kw)
+
+        text += table_text
+
+        text += " SET "
+        text += ", ".join(
+            expr + "=" + value
+            for _, expr, value, _ in cast(
+                "List[Tuple[Any, str, str, Any]]", crud_params
+            )
+        )
+
+        if self.implicit_returning or update_stmt._returning:
+            if self.returning_precedes_values:
+                text += " " + self.returning_clause(
+                    update_stmt,
+                    self.implicit_returning or update_stmt._returning,
+                    populate_result_map=toplevel,
+                )
+
+        if extra_froms:
+            extra_from_text = self.update_from_clause(
+                update_stmt,
+                update_stmt.table,
+                render_extra_froms,
+                dialect_hints,
+                from_linter=from_linter,
+                **kw,
+            )
+            if extra_from_text:
+                text += " " + extra_from_text
+
+        if update_stmt._where_criteria:
+            t = self._generate_delimited_and_list(
+                update_stmt._where_criteria, from_linter=from_linter, **kw
+            )
+            if t:
+                text += " WHERE " + t
+
+        limit_clause = self.update_limit_clause(update_stmt)
+        if limit_clause:
+            text += " " + limit_clause
+
+        if (
+            self.implicit_returning or update_stmt._returning
+        ) and not self.returning_precedes_values:
+            text += " " + self.returning_clause(
+                update_stmt,
+                self.implicit_returning or update_stmt._returning,
+                populate_result_map=toplevel,
+            )
+
+        if self.ctes:
+            nesting_level = len(self.stack) if not toplevel else None
+            text = self._render_cte_clause(nesting_level=nesting_level) + text
+
+        if warn_linting:
+            assert from_linter is not None
+            from_linter.warn(stmt_type="UPDATE")
+
+        self.stack.pop(-1)
+
+        return text
+
+    def delete_extra_from_clause(
+        self, update_stmt, from_table, extra_froms, from_hints, **kw
+    ):
+        """Provide a hook to override the generation of an
+        DELETE..FROM clause.
+
+        This can be used to implement DELETE..USING for example.
+
+        MySQL and MSSQL override this.
+
+        """
+        raise NotImplementedError(
+            "This backend does not support multiple-table "
+            "criteria within DELETE"
+        )
+
+    def delete_table_clause(self, delete_stmt, from_table, extra_froms, **kw):
+        return from_table._compiler_dispatch(
+            self, asfrom=True, iscrud=True, **kw
+        )
+
+    def visit_delete(self, delete_stmt, visiting_cte=None, **kw):
+        compile_state = delete_stmt._compile_state_factory(
+            delete_stmt, self, **kw
+        )
+        delete_stmt = compile_state.statement
+
+        if visiting_cte is not None:
+            kw["visiting_cte"] = visiting_cte
+            toplevel = False
+        else:
+            toplevel = not self.stack
+
+        if toplevel:
+            self.isdelete = True
+            if not self.dml_compile_state:
+                self.dml_compile_state = compile_state
+            if not self.compile_state:
+                self.compile_state = compile_state
+
+        if self.linting & COLLECT_CARTESIAN_PRODUCTS:
+            from_linter = FromLinter({}, set())
+            warn_linting = self.linting & WARN_LINTING
+            if toplevel:
+                self.from_linter = from_linter
+        else:
+            from_linter = None
+            warn_linting = False
+
+        extra_froms = compile_state._extra_froms
+
+        correlate_froms = {delete_stmt.table}.union(extra_froms)
+        self.stack.append(
+            {
+                "correlate_froms": correlate_froms,
+                "asfrom_froms": correlate_froms,
+                "selectable": delete_stmt,
+            }
+        )
+
+        text = "DELETE "
+
+        if delete_stmt._prefixes:
+            text += self._generate_prefixes(
+                delete_stmt, delete_stmt._prefixes, **kw
+            )
+
+        text += "FROM "
+
+        try:
+            table_text = self.delete_table_clause(
+                delete_stmt,
+                delete_stmt.table,
+                extra_froms,
+                from_linter=from_linter,
+            )
+        except TypeError:
+            # anticipate 3rd party dialects that don't include **kw
+            # TODO: remove in 2.1
+            table_text = self.delete_table_clause(
+                delete_stmt, delete_stmt.table, extra_froms
+            )
+            if from_linter:
+                _ = self.process(delete_stmt.table, from_linter=from_linter)
+
+        crud._get_crud_params(self, delete_stmt, compile_state, toplevel, **kw)
+
+        if delete_stmt._hints:
+            dialect_hints, table_text = self._setup_crud_hints(
+                delete_stmt, table_text
+            )
+        else:
+            dialect_hints = None
+
+        if delete_stmt._independent_ctes:
+            self._dispatch_independent_ctes(delete_stmt, kw)
+
+        text += table_text
+
+        if (
+            self.implicit_returning or delete_stmt._returning
+        ) and self.returning_precedes_values:
+            text += " " + self.returning_clause(
+                delete_stmt,
+                self.implicit_returning or delete_stmt._returning,
+                populate_result_map=toplevel,
+            )
+
+        if extra_froms:
+            extra_from_text = self.delete_extra_from_clause(
+                delete_stmt,
+                delete_stmt.table,
+                extra_froms,
+                dialect_hints,
+                from_linter=from_linter,
+                **kw,
+            )
+            if extra_from_text:
+                text += " " + extra_from_text
+
+        if delete_stmt._where_criteria:
+            t = self._generate_delimited_and_list(
+                delete_stmt._where_criteria, from_linter=from_linter, **kw
+            )
+            if t:
+                text += " WHERE " + t
+
+        if (
+            self.implicit_returning or delete_stmt._returning
+        ) and not self.returning_precedes_values:
+            text += " " + self.returning_clause(
+                delete_stmt,
+                self.implicit_returning or delete_stmt._returning,
+                populate_result_map=toplevel,
+            )
+
+        if self.ctes:
+            nesting_level = len(self.stack) if not toplevel else None
+            text = self._render_cte_clause(nesting_level=nesting_level) + text
+
+        if warn_linting:
+            assert from_linter is not None
+            from_linter.warn(stmt_type="DELETE")
+
+        self.stack.pop(-1)
+
+        return text
+
+    def visit_savepoint(self, savepoint_stmt, **kw):
+        return "SAVEPOINT %s" % self.preparer.format_savepoint(savepoint_stmt)
+
+    def visit_rollback_to_savepoint(self, savepoint_stmt, **kw):
+        return "ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT %s" % self.preparer.format_savepoint(
+            savepoint_stmt
+        )
+
+    def visit_release_savepoint(self, savepoint_stmt, **kw):
+        return "RELEASE SAVEPOINT %s" % self.preparer.format_savepoint(
+            savepoint_stmt
+        )
+
+
+class StrSQLCompiler(SQLCompiler):
+    """A :class:`.SQLCompiler` subclass which allows a small selection
+    of non-standard SQL features to render into a string value.
+
+    The :class:`.StrSQLCompiler` is invoked whenever a Core expression
+    element is directly stringified without calling upon the
+    :meth:`_expression.ClauseElement.compile` method.
+    It can render a limited set
+    of non-standard SQL constructs to assist in basic stringification,
+    however for more substantial custom or dialect-specific SQL constructs,
+    it will be necessary to make use of
+    :meth:`_expression.ClauseElement.compile`
+    directly.
+
+    .. seealso::
+
+        :ref:`faq_sql_expression_string`
+
+    """
+
+    def _fallback_column_name(self, column):
+        return "<name unknown>"
+
+    @util.preload_module("sqlalchemy.engine.url")
+    def visit_unsupported_compilation(self, element, err, **kw):
+        if element.stringify_dialect != "default":
+            url = util.preloaded.engine_url
+            dialect = url.URL.create(element.stringify_dialect).get_dialect()()
+
+            compiler = dialect.statement_compiler(
+                dialect, None, _supporting_against=self
+            )
+            if not isinstance(compiler, StrSQLCompiler):
+                return compiler.process(element, **kw)
+
+        return super().visit_unsupported_compilation(element, err)
+
+    def visit_getitem_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        return "%s[%s]" % (
+            self.process(binary.left, **kw),
+            self.process(binary.right, **kw),
+        )
+
+    def visit_json_getitem_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        return self.visit_getitem_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_json_path_getitem_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        return self.visit_getitem_binary(binary, operator, **kw)
+
+    def visit_sequence(self, seq, **kw):
+        return "<next sequence value: %s>" % self.preparer.format_sequence(seq)
+
+    def returning_clause(
+        self,
+        stmt: UpdateBase,
+        returning_cols: Sequence[ColumnElement[Any]],
+        *,
+        populate_result_map: bool,
+        **kw: Any,
+    ) -> str:
+        columns = [
+            self._label_select_column(None, c, True, False, {})
+            for c in base._select_iterables(returning_cols)
+        ]
+        return "RETURNING " + ", ".join(columns)
+
+    def update_from_clause(
+        self, update_stmt, from_table, extra_froms, from_hints, **kw
+    ):
+        kw["asfrom"] = True
+        return "FROM " + ", ".join(
+            t._compiler_dispatch(self, fromhints=from_hints, **kw)
+            for t in extra_froms
+        )
+
+    def delete_extra_from_clause(
+        self, update_stmt, from_table, extra_froms, from_hints, **kw
+    ):
+        kw["asfrom"] = True
+        return ", " + ", ".join(
+            t._compiler_dispatch(self, fromhints=from_hints, **kw)
+            for t in extra_froms
+        )
+
+    def visit_empty_set_expr(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "SELECT 1 WHERE 1!=1"
+
+    def get_from_hint_text(self, table, text):
+        return "[%s]" % text
+
+    def visit_regexp_match_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        return self._generate_generic_binary(binary, " <regexp> ", **kw)
+
+    def visit_not_regexp_match_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        return self._generate_generic_binary(binary, " <not regexp> ", **kw)
+
+    def visit_regexp_replace_op_binary(self, binary, operator, **kw):
+        return "<regexp replace>(%s, %s)" % (
+            binary.left._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw),
+            binary.right._compiler_dispatch(self, **kw),
+        )
+
+    def visit_try_cast(self, cast, **kwargs):
+        return "TRY_CAST(%s AS %s)" % (
+            cast.clause._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs),
+            cast.typeclause._compiler_dispatch(self, **kwargs),
+        )
+
+
+class DDLCompiler(Compiled):
+    is_ddl = True
+
+    if TYPE_CHECKING:
+
+        def __init__(
+            self,
+            dialect: Dialect,
+            statement: ExecutableDDLElement,
+            schema_translate_map: Optional[SchemaTranslateMapType] = ...,
+            render_schema_translate: bool = ...,
+            compile_kwargs: Mapping[str, Any] = ...,
+        ): ...
+
+    @util.memoized_property
+    def sql_compiler(self):
+        return self.dialect.statement_compiler(
+            self.dialect, None, schema_translate_map=self.schema_translate_map
+        )
+
+    @util.memoized_property
+    def type_compiler(self):
+        return self.dialect.type_compiler_instance
+
+    def construct_params(
+        self,
+        params: Optional[_CoreSingleExecuteParams] = None,
+        extracted_parameters: Optional[Sequence[BindParameter[Any]]] = None,
+        escape_names: bool = True,
+    ) -> Optional[_MutableCoreSingleExecuteParams]:
+        return None
+
+    def visit_ddl(self, ddl, **kwargs):
+        # table events can substitute table and schema name
+        context = ddl.context
+        if isinstance(ddl.target, schema.Table):
+            context = context.copy()
+
+            preparer = self.preparer
+            path = preparer.format_table_seq(ddl.target)
+            if len(path) == 1:
+                table, sch = path[0], ""
+            else:
+                table, sch = path[-1], path[0]
+
+            context.setdefault("table", table)
+            context.setdefault("schema", sch)
+            context.setdefault("fullname", preparer.format_table(ddl.target))
+
+        return self.sql_compiler.post_process_text(ddl.statement % context)
+
+    def visit_create_schema(self, create, **kw):
+        text = "CREATE SCHEMA "
+        if create.if_not_exists:
+            text += "IF NOT EXISTS "
+        return text + self.preparer.format_schema(create.element)
+
+    def visit_drop_schema(self, drop, **kw):
+        text = "DROP SCHEMA "
+        if drop.if_exists:
+            text += "IF EXISTS "
+        text += self.preparer.format_schema(drop.element)
+        if drop.cascade:
+            text += " CASCADE"
+        return text
+
+    def visit_create_table(self, create, **kw):
+        table = create.element
+        preparer = self.preparer
+
+        text = "\nCREATE "
+        if table._prefixes:
+            text += " ".join(table._prefixes) + " "
+
+        text += "TABLE "
+        if create.if_not_exists:
+            text += "IF NOT EXISTS "
+
+        text += preparer.format_table(table) + " "
+
+        create_table_suffix = self.create_table_suffix(table)
+        if create_table_suffix:
+            text += create_table_suffix + " "
+
+        text += "("
+
+        separator = "\n"
+
+        # if only one primary key, specify it along with the column
+        first_pk = False
+        for create_column in create.columns:
+            column = create_column.element
+            try:
+                processed = self.process(
+                    create_column, first_pk=column.primary_key and not first_pk
+                )
+                if processed is not None:
+                    text += separator
+                    separator = ", \n"
+                    text += "\t" + processed
+                if column.primary_key:
+                    first_pk = True
+            except exc.CompileError as ce:
+                raise exc.CompileError(
+                    "(in table '%s', column '%s'): %s"
+                    % (table.description, column.name, ce.args[0])
+                ) from ce
+
+        const = self.create_table_constraints(
+            table,
+            _include_foreign_key_constraints=create.include_foreign_key_constraints,  # noqa
+        )
+        if const:
+            text += separator + "\t" + const
+
+        text += "\n)%s\n\n" % self.post_create_table(table)
+        return text
+
+    def visit_create_column(self, create, first_pk=False, **kw):
+        column = create.element
+
+        if column.system:
+            return None
+
+        text = self.get_column_specification(column, first_pk=first_pk)
+        const = " ".join(
+            self.process(constraint) for constraint in column.constraints
+        )
+        if const:
+            text += " " + const
+
+        return text
+
+    def create_table_constraints(
+        self, table, _include_foreign_key_constraints=None, **kw
+    ):
+        # On some DB order is significant: visit PK first, then the
+        # other constraints (engine.ReflectionTest.testbasic failed on FB2)
+        constraints = []
+        if table.primary_key:
+            constraints.append(table.primary_key)
+
+        all_fkcs = table.foreign_key_constraints
+        if _include_foreign_key_constraints is not None:
+            omit_fkcs = all_fkcs.difference(_include_foreign_key_constraints)
+        else:
+            omit_fkcs = set()
+
+        constraints.extend(
+            [
+                c
+                for c in table._sorted_constraints
+                if c is not table.primary_key and c not in omit_fkcs
+            ]
+        )
+
+        return ", \n\t".join(
+            p
+            for p in (
+                self.process(constraint)
+                for constraint in constraints
+                if (constraint._should_create_for_compiler(self))
+                and (
+                    not self.dialect.supports_alter
+                    or not getattr(constraint, "use_alter", False)
+                )
+            )
+            if p is not None
+        )
+
+    def visit_drop_table(self, drop, **kw):
+        text = "\nDROP TABLE "
+        if drop.if_exists:
+            text += "IF EXISTS "
+        return text + self.preparer.format_table(drop.element)
+
+    def visit_drop_view(self, drop, **kw):
+        return "\nDROP VIEW " + self.preparer.format_table(drop.element)
+
+    def _verify_index_table(self, index):
+        if index.table is None:
+            raise exc.CompileError(
+                "Index '%s' is not associated with any table." % index.name
+            )
+
+    def visit_create_index(
+        self, create, include_schema=False, include_table_schema=True, **kw
+    ):
+        index = create.element
+        self._verify_index_table(index)
+        preparer = self.preparer
+        text = "CREATE "
+        if index.unique:
+            text += "UNIQUE "
+        if index.name is None:
+            raise exc.CompileError(
+                "CREATE INDEX requires that the index have a name"
+            )
+
+        text += "INDEX "
+        if create.if_not_exists:
+            text += "IF NOT EXISTS "
+
+        text += "%s ON %s (%s)" % (
+            self._prepared_index_name(index, include_schema=include_schema),
+            preparer.format_table(
+                index.table, use_schema=include_table_schema
+            ),
+            ", ".join(
+                self.sql_compiler.process(
+                    expr, include_table=False, literal_binds=True
+                )
+                for expr in index.expressions
+            ),
+        )
+        return text
+
+    def visit_drop_index(self, drop, **kw):
+        index = drop.element
+
+        if index.name is None:
+            raise exc.CompileError(
+                "DROP INDEX requires that the index have a name"
+            )
+        text = "\nDROP INDEX "
+        if drop.if_exists:
+            text += "IF EXISTS "
+
+        return text + self._prepared_index_name(index, include_schema=True)
+
+    def _prepared_index_name(self, index, include_schema=False):
+        if index.table is not None:
+            effective_schema = self.preparer.schema_for_object(index.table)
+        else:
+            effective_schema = None
+        if include_schema and effective_schema:
+            schema_name = self.preparer.quote_schema(effective_schema)
+        else:
+            schema_name = None
+
+        index_name = self.preparer.format_index(index)
+
+        if schema_name:
+            index_name = schema_name + "." + index_name
+        return index_name
+
+    def visit_add_constraint(self, create, **kw):
+        return "ALTER TABLE %s ADD %s" % (
+            self.preparer.format_table(create.element.table),
+            self.process(create.element),
+        )
+
+    def visit_set_table_comment(self, create, **kw):
+        return "COMMENT ON TABLE %s IS %s" % (
+            self.preparer.format_table(create.element),
+            self.sql_compiler.render_literal_value(
+                create.element.comment, sqltypes.String()
+            ),
+        )
+
+    def visit_drop_table_comment(self, drop, **kw):
+        return "COMMENT ON TABLE %s IS NULL" % self.preparer.format_table(
+            drop.element
+        )
+
+    def visit_set_column_comment(self, create, **kw):
+        return "COMMENT ON COLUMN %s IS %s" % (
+            self.preparer.format_column(
+                create.element, use_table=True, use_schema=True
+            ),
+            self.sql_compiler.render_literal_value(
+                create.element.comment, sqltypes.String()
+            ),
+        )
+
+    def visit_drop_column_comment(self, drop, **kw):
+        return "COMMENT ON COLUMN %s IS NULL" % self.preparer.format_column(
+            drop.element, use_table=True
+        )
+
+    def visit_set_constraint_comment(self, create, **kw):
+        raise exc.UnsupportedCompilationError(self, type(create))
+
+    def visit_drop_constraint_comment(self, drop, **kw):
+        raise exc.UnsupportedCompilationError(self, type(drop))
+
+    def get_identity_options(self, identity_options):
+        text = []
+        if identity_options.increment is not None:
+            text.append("INCREMENT BY %d" % identity_options.increment)
+        if identity_options.start is not None:
+            text.append("START WITH %d" % identity_options.start)
+        if identity_options.minvalue is not None:
+            text.append("MINVALUE %d" % identity_options.minvalue)
+        if identity_options.maxvalue is not None:
+            text.append("MAXVALUE %d" % identity_options.maxvalue)
+        if identity_options.nominvalue is not None:
+            text.append("NO MINVALUE")
+        if identity_options.nomaxvalue is not None:
+            text.append("NO MAXVALUE")
+        if identity_options.cache is not None:
+            text.append("CACHE %d" % identity_options.cache)
+        if identity_options.cycle is not None:
+            text.append("CYCLE" if identity_options.cycle else "NO CYCLE")
+        return " ".join(text)
+
+    def visit_create_sequence(self, create, prefix=None, **kw):
+        text = "CREATE SEQUENCE "
+        if create.if_not_exists:
+            text += "IF NOT EXISTS "
+        text += self.preparer.format_sequence(create.element)
+
+        if prefix:
+            text += prefix
+        options = self.get_identity_options(create.element)
+        if options:
+            text += " " + options
+        return text
+
+    def visit_drop_sequence(self, drop, **kw):
+        text = "DROP SEQUENCE "
+        if drop.if_exists:
+            text += "IF EXISTS "
+        return text + self.preparer.format_sequence(drop.element)
+
+    def visit_drop_constraint(self, drop, **kw):
+        constraint = drop.element
+        if constraint.name is not None:
+            formatted_name = self.preparer.format_constraint(constraint)
+        else:
+            formatted_name = None
+
+        if formatted_name is None:
+            raise exc.CompileError(
+                "Can't emit DROP CONSTRAINT for constraint %r; "
+                "it has no name" % drop.element
+            )
+        return "ALTER TABLE %s DROP CONSTRAINT %s%s%s" % (
+            self.preparer.format_table(drop.element.table),
+            "IF EXISTS " if drop.if_exists else "",
+            formatted_name,
+            " CASCADE" if drop.cascade else "",
+        )
+
+    def get_column_specification(self, column, **kwargs):
+        colspec = (
+            self.preparer.format_column(column)
+            + " "
+            + self.dialect.type_compiler_instance.process(
+                column.type, type_expression=column
+            )
+        )
+        default = self.get_column_default_string(column)
+        if default is not None:
+            colspec += " DEFAULT " + default
+
+        if column.computed is not None:
+            colspec += " " + self.process(column.computed)
+
+        if (
+            column.identity is not None
+            and self.dialect.supports_identity_columns
+        ):
+            colspec += " " + self.process(column.identity)
+
+        if not column.nullable and (
+            not column.identity or not self.dialect.supports_identity_columns
+        ):
+            colspec += " NOT NULL"
+        return colspec
+
+    def create_table_suffix(self, table):
+        return ""
+
+    def post_create_table(self, table):
+        return ""
+
+    def get_column_default_string(self, column):
+        if isinstance(column.server_default, schema.DefaultClause):
+            return self.render_default_string(column.server_default.arg)
+        else:
+            return None
+
+    def render_default_string(self, default):
+        if isinstance(default, str):
+            return self.sql_compiler.render_literal_value(
+                default, sqltypes.STRINGTYPE
+            )
+        else:
+            return self.sql_compiler.process(default, literal_binds=True)
+
+    def visit_table_or_column_check_constraint(self, constraint, **kw):
+        if constraint.is_column_level:
+            return self.visit_column_check_constraint(constraint)
+        else:
+            return self.visit_check_constraint(constraint)
+
+    def visit_check_constraint(self, constraint, **kw):
+        text = ""
+        if constraint.name is not None:
+            formatted_name = self.preparer.format_constraint(constraint)
+            if formatted_name is not None:
+                text += "CONSTRAINT %s " % formatted_name
+        text += "CHECK (%s)" % self.sql_compiler.process(
+            constraint.sqltext, include_table=False, literal_binds=True
+        )
+        text += self.define_constraint_deferrability(constraint)
+        return text
+
+    def visit_column_check_constraint(self, constraint, **kw):
+        text = ""
+        if constraint.name is not None:
+            formatted_name = self.preparer.format_constraint(constraint)
+            if formatted_name is not None:
+                text += "CONSTRAINT %s " % formatted_name
+        text += "CHECK (%s)" % self.sql_compiler.process(
+            constraint.sqltext, include_table=False, literal_binds=True
+        )
+        text += self.define_constraint_deferrability(constraint)
+        return text
+
+    def visit_primary_key_constraint(self, constraint, **kw):
+        if len(constraint) == 0:
+            return ""
+        text = ""
+        if constraint.name is not None:
+            formatted_name = self.preparer.format_constraint(constraint)
+            if formatted_name is not None:
+                text += "CONSTRAINT %s " % formatted_name
+        text += "PRIMARY KEY "
+        text += "(%s)" % ", ".join(
+            self.preparer.quote(c.name)
+            for c in (
+                constraint.columns_autoinc_first
+                if constraint._implicit_generated
+                else constraint.columns
+            )
+        )
+        text += self.define_constraint_deferrability(constraint)
+        return text
+
+    def visit_foreign_key_constraint(self, constraint, **kw):
+        preparer = self.preparer
+        text = ""
+        if constraint.name is not None:
+            formatted_name = self.preparer.format_constraint(constraint)
+            if formatted_name is not None:
+                text += "CONSTRAINT %s " % formatted_name
+        remote_table = list(constraint.elements)[0].column.table
+        text += "FOREIGN KEY(%s) REFERENCES %s (%s)" % (
+            ", ".join(
+                preparer.quote(f.parent.name) for f in constraint.elements
+            ),
+            self.define_constraint_remote_table(
+                constraint, remote_table, preparer
+            ),
+            ", ".join(
+                preparer.quote(f.column.name) for f in constraint.elements
+            ),
+        )
+        text += self.define_constraint_match(constraint)
+        text += self.define_constraint_cascades(constraint)
+        text += self.define_constraint_deferrability(constraint)
+        return text
+
+    def define_constraint_remote_table(self, constraint, table, preparer):
+        """Format the remote table clause of a CREATE CONSTRAINT clause."""
+
+        return preparer.format_table(table)
+
+    def visit_unique_constraint(self, constraint, **kw):
+        if len(constraint) == 0:
+            return ""
+        text = ""
+        if constraint.name is not None:
+            formatted_name = self.preparer.format_constraint(constraint)
+            if formatted_name is not None:
+                text += "CONSTRAINT %s " % formatted_name
+        text += "UNIQUE %s(%s)" % (
+            self.define_unique_constraint_distinct(constraint, **kw),
+            ", ".join(self.preparer.quote(c.name) for c in constraint),
+        )
+        text += self.define_constraint_deferrability(constraint)
+        return text
+
+    def define_unique_constraint_distinct(self, constraint, **kw):
+        return ""
+
+    def define_constraint_cascades(self, constraint):
+        text = ""
+        if constraint.ondelete is not None:
+            text += " ON DELETE %s" % self.preparer.validate_sql_phrase(
+                constraint.ondelete, FK_ON_DELETE
+            )
+        if constraint.onupdate is not None:
+            text += " ON UPDATE %s" % self.preparer.validate_sql_phrase(
+                constraint.onupdate, FK_ON_UPDATE
+            )
+        return text
+
+    def define_constraint_deferrability(self, constraint):
+        text = ""
+        if constraint.deferrable is not None:
+            if constraint.deferrable:
+                text += " DEFERRABLE"
+            else:
+                text += " NOT DEFERRABLE"
+        if constraint.initially is not None:
+            text += " INITIALLY %s" % self.preparer.validate_sql_phrase(
+                constraint.initially, FK_INITIALLY
+            )
+        return text
+
+    def define_constraint_match(self, constraint):
+        text = ""
+        if constraint.match is not None:
+            text += " MATCH %s" % constraint.match
+        return text
+
+    def visit_computed_column(self, generated, **kw):
+        text = "GENERATED ALWAYS AS (%s)" % self.sql_compiler.process(
+            generated.sqltext, include_table=False, literal_binds=True
+        )
+        if generated.persisted is True:
+            text += " STORED"
+        elif generated.persisted is False:
+            text += " VIRTUAL"
+        return text
+
+    def visit_identity_column(self, identity, **kw):
+        text = "GENERATED %s AS IDENTITY" % (
+            "ALWAYS" if identity.always else "BY DEFAULT",
+        )
+        options = self.get_identity_options(identity)
+        if options:
+            text += " (%s)" % options
+        return text
+
+
+class GenericTypeCompiler(TypeCompiler):
+    def visit_FLOAT(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "FLOAT"
+
+    def visit_DOUBLE(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "DOUBLE"
+
+    def visit_DOUBLE_PRECISION(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "DOUBLE PRECISION"
+
+    def visit_REAL(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "REAL"
+
+    def visit_NUMERIC(self, type_, **kw):
+        if type_.precision is None:
+            return "NUMERIC"
+        elif type_.scale is None:
+            return "NUMERIC(%(precision)s)" % {"precision": type_.precision}
+        else:
+            return "NUMERIC(%(precision)s, %(scale)s)" % {
+                "precision": type_.precision,
+                "scale": type_.scale,
+            }
+
+    def visit_DECIMAL(self, type_, **kw):
+        if type_.precision is None:
+            return "DECIMAL"
+        elif type_.scale is None:
+            return "DECIMAL(%(precision)s)" % {"precision": type_.precision}
+        else:
+            return "DECIMAL(%(precision)s, %(scale)s)" % {
+                "precision": type_.precision,
+                "scale": type_.scale,
+            }
+
+    def visit_INTEGER(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "INTEGER"
+
+    def visit_SMALLINT(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "SMALLINT"
+
+    def visit_BIGINT(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "BIGINT"
+
+    def visit_TIMESTAMP(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "TIMESTAMP"
+
+    def visit_DATETIME(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "DATETIME"
+
+    def visit_DATE(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "DATE"
+
+    def visit_TIME(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "TIME"
+
+    def visit_CLOB(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "CLOB"
+
+    def visit_NCLOB(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "NCLOB"
+
+    def _render_string_type(self, type_, name, length_override=None):
+        text = name
+        if length_override:
+            text += "(%d)" % length_override
+        elif type_.length:
+            text += "(%d)" % type_.length
+        if type_.collation:
+            text += ' COLLATE "%s"' % type_.collation
+        return text
+
+    def visit_CHAR(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self._render_string_type(type_, "CHAR")
+
+    def visit_NCHAR(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self._render_string_type(type_, "NCHAR")
+
+    def visit_VARCHAR(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self._render_string_type(type_, "VARCHAR")
+
+    def visit_NVARCHAR(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self._render_string_type(type_, "NVARCHAR")
+
+    def visit_TEXT(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self._render_string_type(type_, "TEXT")
+
+    def visit_UUID(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "UUID"
+
+    def visit_BLOB(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "BLOB"
+
+    def visit_BINARY(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "BINARY" + (type_.length and "(%d)" % type_.length or "")
+
+    def visit_VARBINARY(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "VARBINARY" + (type_.length and "(%d)" % type_.length or "")
+
+    def visit_BOOLEAN(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "BOOLEAN"
+
+    def visit_uuid(self, type_, **kw):
+        if not type_.native_uuid or not self.dialect.supports_native_uuid:
+            return self._render_string_type(type_, "CHAR", length_override=32)
+        else:
+            return self.visit_UUID(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_large_binary(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_BLOB(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_boolean(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_BOOLEAN(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_time(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_TIME(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_datetime(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_DATETIME(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_date(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_DATE(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_big_integer(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_BIGINT(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_small_integer(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_SMALLINT(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_integer(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_INTEGER(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_real(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_REAL(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_float(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_FLOAT(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_double(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_DOUBLE(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_numeric(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_NUMERIC(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_string(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_VARCHAR(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_unicode(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_VARCHAR(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_text(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_TEXT(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_unicode_text(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_TEXT(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_enum(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.visit_VARCHAR(type_, **kw)
+
+    def visit_null(self, type_, **kw):
+        raise exc.CompileError(
+            "Can't generate DDL for %r; "
+            "did you forget to specify a "
+            "type on this Column?" % type_
+        )
+
+    def visit_type_decorator(self, type_, **kw):
+        return self.process(type_.type_engine(self.dialect), **kw)
+
+    def visit_user_defined(self, type_, **kw):
+        return type_.get_col_spec(**kw)
+
+
+class StrSQLTypeCompiler(GenericTypeCompiler):
+    def process(self, type_, **kw):
+        try:
+            _compiler_dispatch = type_._compiler_dispatch
+        except AttributeError:
+            return self._visit_unknown(type_, **kw)
+        else:
+            return _compiler_dispatch(self, **kw)
+
+    def __getattr__(self, key):
+        if key.startswith("visit_"):
+            return self._visit_unknown
+        else:
+            raise AttributeError(key)
+
+    def _visit_unknown(self, type_, **kw):
+        if type_.__class__.__name__ == type_.__class__.__name__.upper():
+            return type_.__class__.__name__
+        else:
+            return repr(type_)
+
+    def visit_null(self, type_, **kw):
+        return "NULL"
+
+    def visit_user_defined(self, type_, **kw):
+        try:
+            get_col_spec = type_.get_col_spec
+        except AttributeError:
+            return repr(type_)
+        else:
+            return get_col_spec(**kw)
+
+
+class _SchemaForObjectCallable(Protocol):
+    def __call__(self, obj: Any) -> str: ...
+
+
+class _BindNameForColProtocol(Protocol):
+    def __call__(self, col: ColumnClause[Any]) -> str: ...
+
+
+class IdentifierPreparer:
+    """Handle quoting and case-folding of identifiers based on options."""
+
+    reserved_words = RESERVED_WORDS
+
+    legal_characters = LEGAL_CHARACTERS
+
+    illegal_initial_characters = ILLEGAL_INITIAL_CHARACTERS
+
+    initial_quote: str
+
+    final_quote: str
+
+    _strings: MutableMapping[str, str]
+
+    schema_for_object: _SchemaForObjectCallable = operator.attrgetter("schema")
+    """Return the .schema attribute for an object.
+
+    For the default IdentifierPreparer, the schema for an object is always
+    the value of the ".schema" attribute.   if the preparer is replaced
+    with one that has a non-empty schema_translate_map, the value of the
+    ".schema" attribute is rendered a symbol that will be converted to a
+    real schema name from the mapping post-compile.
+
+    """
+
+    _includes_none_schema_translate: bool = False
+
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        dialect,
+        initial_quote='"',
+        final_quote=None,
+        escape_quote='"',
+        quote_case_sensitive_collations=True,
+        omit_schema=False,
+    ):
+        """Construct a new ``IdentifierPreparer`` object.
+
+        initial_quote
+          Character that begins a delimited identifier.
+
+        final_quote
+          Character that ends a delimited identifier. Defaults to
+          `initial_quote`.
+
+        omit_schema
+          Prevent prepending schema name. Useful for databases that do
+          not support schemae.
+        """
+
+        self.dialect = dialect
+        self.initial_quote = initial_quote
+        self.final_quote = final_quote or self.initial_quote
+        self.escape_quote = escape_quote
+        self.escape_to_quote = self.escape_quote * 2
+        self.omit_schema = omit_schema
+        self.quote_case_sensitive_collations = quote_case_sensitive_collations
+        self._strings = {}
+        self._double_percents = self.dialect.paramstyle in (
+            "format",
+            "pyformat",
+        )
+
+    def _with_schema_translate(self, schema_translate_map):
+        prep = self.__class__.__new__(self.__class__)
+        prep.__dict__.update(self.__dict__)
+
+        includes_none = None in schema_translate_map
+
+        def symbol_getter(obj):
+            name = obj.schema
+            if obj._use_schema_map and (name is not None or includes_none):
+                if name is not None and ("[" in name or "]" in name):
+                    raise exc.CompileError(
+                        "Square bracket characters ([]) not supported "
+                        "in schema translate name '%s'" % name
+                    )
+                return quoted_name(
+                    "__[SCHEMA_%s]" % (name or "_none"), quote=False
+                )
+            else:
+                return obj.schema
+
+        prep.schema_for_object = symbol_getter
+        prep._includes_none_schema_translate = includes_none
+        return prep
+
+    def _render_schema_translates(self, statement, schema_translate_map):
+        d = schema_translate_map
+        if None in d:
+            if not self._includes_none_schema_translate:
+                raise exc.InvalidRequestError(
+                    "schema translate map which previously did not have "
+                    "`None` present as a key now has `None` present; compiled "
+                    "statement may lack adequate placeholders.  Please use "
+                    "consistent keys in successive "
+                    "schema_translate_map dictionaries."
+                )
+
+            d["_none"] = d[None]
+
+        def replace(m):
+            name = m.group(2)
+            if name in d:
+                effective_schema = d[name]
+            else:
+                if name in (None, "_none"):
+                    raise exc.InvalidRequestError(
+                        "schema translate map which previously had `None` "
+                        "present as a key now no longer has it present; don't "
+                        "know how to apply schema for compiled statement. "
+                        "Please use consistent keys in successive "
+                        "schema_translate_map dictionaries."
+                    )
+                effective_schema = name
+
+            if not effective_schema:
+                effective_schema = self.dialect.default_schema_name
+                if not effective_schema:
+                    # TODO: no coverage here
+                    raise exc.CompileError(
+                        "Dialect has no default schema name; can't "
+                        "use None as dynamic schema target."
+                    )
+            return self.quote_schema(effective_schema)
+
+        return re.sub(r"(__\[SCHEMA_([^\]]+)\])", replace, statement)
+
+    def _escape_identifier(self, value: str) -> str:
+        """Escape an identifier.
+
+        Subclasses should override this to provide database-dependent
+        escaping behavior.
+        """
+
+        value = value.replace(self.escape_quote, self.escape_to_quote)
+        if self._double_percents:
+            value = value.replace("%", "%%")
+        return value
+
+    def _unescape_identifier(self, value: str) -> str:
+        """Canonicalize an escaped identifier.
+
+        Subclasses should override this to provide database-dependent
+        unescaping behavior that reverses _escape_identifier.
+        """
+
+        return value.replace(self.escape_to_quote, self.escape_quote)
+
+    def validate_sql_phrase(self, element, reg):
+        """keyword sequence filter.
+
+        a filter for elements that are intended to represent keyword sequences,
+        such as "INITIALLY", "INITIALLY DEFERRED", etc.   no special characters
+        should be present.
+
+        .. versionadded:: 1.3
+
+        """
+
+        if element is not None and not reg.match(element):
+            raise exc.CompileError(
+                "Unexpected SQL phrase: %r (matching against %r)"
+                % (element, reg.pattern)
+            )
+        return element
+
+    def quote_identifier(self, value: str) -> str:
+        """Quote an identifier.
+
+        Subclasses should override this to provide database-dependent
+        quoting behavior.
+        """
+
+        return (
+            self.initial_quote
+            + self._escape_identifier(value)
+            + self.final_quote
+        )
+
+    def _requires_quotes(self, value: str) -> bool:
+        """Return True if the given identifier requires quoting."""
+        lc_value = value.lower()
+        return (
+            lc_value in self.reserved_words
+            or value[0] in self.illegal_initial_characters
+            or not self.legal_characters.match(str(value))
+            or (lc_value != value)
+        )
+
+    def _requires_quotes_illegal_chars(self, value):
+        """Return True if the given identifier requires quoting, but
+        not taking case convention into account."""
+        return not self.legal_characters.match(str(value))
+
+    def quote_schema(self, schema: str, force: Any = None) -> str:
+        """Conditionally quote a schema name.
+
+
+        The name is quoted if it is a reserved word, contains quote-necessary
+        characters, or is an instance of :class:`.quoted_name` which includes
+        ``quote`` set to ``True``.
+
+        Subclasses can override this to provide database-dependent
+        quoting behavior for schema names.
+
+        :param schema: string schema name
+        :param force: unused
+
+            .. deprecated:: 0.9
+
+                The :paramref:`.IdentifierPreparer.quote_schema.force`
+                parameter is deprecated and will be removed in a future
+                release.  This flag has no effect on the behavior of the
+                :meth:`.IdentifierPreparer.quote` method; please refer to
+                :class:`.quoted_name`.
+
+        """
+        if force is not None:
+            # not using the util.deprecated_params() decorator in this
+            # case because of the additional function call overhead on this
+            # very performance-critical spot.
+            util.warn_deprecated(
+                "The IdentifierPreparer.quote_schema.force parameter is "
+                "deprecated and will be removed in a future release.  This "
+                "flag has no effect on the behavior of the "
+                "IdentifierPreparer.quote method; please refer to "
+                "quoted_name().",
+                # deprecated 0.9. warning from 1.3
+                version="0.9",
+            )
+
+        return self.quote(schema)
+
+    def quote(self, ident: str, force: Any = None) -> str:
+        """Conditionally quote an identifier.
+
+        The identifier is quoted if it is a reserved word, contains
+        quote-necessary characters, or is an instance of
+        :class:`.quoted_name` which includes ``quote`` set to ``True``.
+
+        Subclasses can override this to provide database-dependent
+        quoting behavior for identifier names.
+
+        :param ident: string identifier
+        :param force: unused
+
+            .. deprecated:: 0.9
+
+                The :paramref:`.IdentifierPreparer.quote.force`
+                parameter is deprecated and will be removed in a future
+                release.  This flag has no effect on the behavior of the
+                :meth:`.IdentifierPreparer.quote` method; please refer to
+                :class:`.quoted_name`.
+
+        """
+        if force is not None:
+            # not using the util.deprecated_params() decorator in this
+            # case because of the additional function call overhead on this
+            # very performance-critical spot.
+            util.warn_deprecated(
+                "The IdentifierPreparer.quote.force parameter is "
+                "deprecated and will be removed in a future release.  This "
+                "flag has no effect on the behavior of the "
+                "IdentifierPreparer.quote method; please refer to "
+                "quoted_name().",
+                # deprecated 0.9. warning from 1.3
+                version="0.9",
+            )
+
+        force = getattr(ident, "quote", None)
+
+        if force is None:
+            if ident in self._strings:
+                return self._strings[ident]
+            else:
+                if self._requires_quotes(ident):
+                    self._strings[ident] = self.quote_identifier(ident)
+                else:
+                    self._strings[ident] = ident
+                return self._strings[ident]
+        elif force:
+            return self.quote_identifier(ident)
+        else:
+            return ident
+
+    def format_collation(self, collation_name):
+        if self.quote_case_sensitive_collations:
+            return self.quote(collation_name)
+        else:
+            return collation_name
+
+    def format_sequence(self, sequence, use_schema=True):
+        name = self.quote(sequence.name)
+
+        effective_schema = self.schema_for_object(sequence)
+
+        if (
+            not self.omit_schema
+            and use_schema
+            and effective_schema is not None
+        ):
+            name = self.quote_schema(effective_schema) + "." + name
+        return name
+
+    def format_label(
+        self, label: Label[Any], name: Optional[str] = None
+    ) -> str:
+        return self.quote(name or label.name)
+
+    def format_alias(
+        self, alias: Optional[AliasedReturnsRows], name: Optional[str] = None
+    ) -> str:
+        if name is None:
+            assert alias is not None
+            return self.quote(alias.name)
+        else:
+            return self.quote(name)
+
+    def format_savepoint(self, savepoint, name=None):
+        # Running the savepoint name through quoting is unnecessary
+        # for all known dialects.  This is here to support potential
+        # third party use cases
+        ident = name or savepoint.ident
+        if self._requires_quotes(ident):
+            ident = self.quote_identifier(ident)
+        return ident
+
+    @util.preload_module("sqlalchemy.sql.naming")
+    def format_constraint(self, constraint, _alembic_quote=True):
+        naming = util.preloaded.sql_naming
+
+        if constraint.name is _NONE_NAME:
+            name = naming._constraint_name_for_table(
+                constraint, constraint.table
+            )
+
+            if name is None:
+                return None
+        else:
+            name = constraint.name
+
+        if constraint.__visit_name__ == "index":
+            return self.truncate_and_render_index_name(
+                name, _alembic_quote=_alembic_quote
+            )
+        else:
+            return self.truncate_and_render_constraint_name(
+                name, _alembic_quote=_alembic_quote
+            )
+
+    def truncate_and_render_index_name(self, name, _alembic_quote=True):
+        # calculate these at format time so that ad-hoc changes
+        # to dialect.max_identifier_length etc. can be reflected
+        # as IdentifierPreparer is long lived
+        max_ = (
+            self.dialect.max_index_name_length
+            or self.dialect.max_identifier_length
+        )
+        return self._truncate_and_render_maxlen_name(
+            name, max_, _alembic_quote
+        )
+
+    def truncate_and_render_constraint_name(self, name, _alembic_quote=True):
+        # calculate these at format time so that ad-hoc changes
+        # to dialect.max_identifier_length etc. can be reflected
+        # as IdentifierPreparer is long lived
+        max_ = (
+            self.dialect.max_constraint_name_length
+            or self.dialect.max_identifier_length
+        )
+        return self._truncate_and_render_maxlen_name(
+            name, max_, _alembic_quote
+        )
+
+    def _truncate_and_render_maxlen_name(self, name, max_, _alembic_quote):
+        if isinstance(name, elements._truncated_label):
+            if len(name) > max_:
+                name = name[0 : max_ - 8] + "_" + util.md5_hex(name)[-4:]
+        else:
+            self.dialect.validate_identifier(name)
+
+        if not _alembic_quote:
+            return name
+        else:
+            return self.quote(name)
+
+    def format_index(self, index):
+        return self.format_constraint(index)
+
+    def format_table(self, table, use_schema=True, name=None):
+        """Prepare a quoted table and schema name."""
+
+        if name is None:
+            name = table.name
+
+        result = self.quote(name)
+
+        effective_schema = self.schema_for_object(table)
+
+        if not self.omit_schema and use_schema and effective_schema:
+            result = self.quote_schema(effective_schema) + "." + result
+        return result
+
+    def format_schema(self, name):
+        """Prepare a quoted schema name."""
+
+        return self.quote(name)
+
+    def format_label_name(
+        self,
+        name,
+        anon_map=None,
+    ):
+        """Prepare a quoted column name."""
+
+        if anon_map is not None and isinstance(
+            name, elements._truncated_label
+        ):
+            name = name.apply_map(anon_map)
+
+        return self.quote(name)
+
+    def format_column(
+        self,
+        column,
+        use_table=False,
+        name=None,
+        table_name=None,
+        use_schema=False,
+        anon_map=None,
+    ):
+        """Prepare a quoted column name."""
+
+        if name is None:
+            name = column.name
+
+        if anon_map is not None and isinstance(
+            name, elements._truncated_label
+        ):
+            name = name.apply_map(anon_map)
+
+        if not getattr(column, "is_literal", False):
+            if use_table:
+                return (
+                    self.format_table(
+                        column.table, use_schema=use_schema, name=table_name
+                    )
+                    + "."
+                    + self.quote(name)
+                )
+            else:
+                return self.quote(name)
+        else:
+            # literal textual elements get stuck into ColumnClause a lot,
+            # which shouldn't get quoted
+
+            if use_table:
+                return (
+                    self.format_table(
+                        column.table, use_schema=use_schema, name=table_name
+                    )
+                    + "."
+                    + name
+                )
+            else:
+                return name
+
+    def format_table_seq(self, table, use_schema=True):
+        """Format table name and schema as a tuple."""
+
+        # Dialects with more levels in their fully qualified references
+        # ('database', 'owner', etc.) could override this and return
+        # a longer sequence.
+
+        effective_schema = self.schema_for_object(table)
+
+        if not self.omit_schema and use_schema and effective_schema:
+            return (
+                self.quote_schema(effective_schema),
+                self.format_table(table, use_schema=False),
+            )
+        else:
+            return (self.format_table(table, use_schema=False),)
+
+    @util.memoized_property
+    def _r_identifiers(self):
+        initial, final, escaped_final = (
+            re.escape(s)
+            for s in (
+                self.initial_quote,
+                self.final_quote,
+                self._escape_identifier(self.final_quote),
+            )
+        )
+        r = re.compile(
+            r"(?:"
+            r"(?:%(initial)s((?:%(escaped)s|[^%(final)s])+)%(final)s"
+            r"|([^\.]+))(?=\.|$))+"
+            % {"initial": initial, "final": final, "escaped": escaped_final}
+        )
+        return r
+
+    def unformat_identifiers(self, identifiers):
+        """Unpack 'schema.table.column'-like strings into components."""
+
+        r = self._r_identifiers
+        return [
+            self._unescape_identifier(i)
+            for i in [a or b for a, b in r.findall(identifiers)]
+        ]